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Humans, like all creatures, have the privilege of the freedom of choice. There are two broad ranges of factors that affect the decisions that a person makes. The first factor that affects decision making is internal, and includes a person's character and intellect. The second factor is external, including such things as environment and interaction with other people. Naturally, each decision a person makes results in a repercussion of some degree, usually either helpful or hindering, and rarely inconsequential.
The concept of justice and revenge is based on the fact that decisions are always followed by consequences. It strictly adheres to the rewarding of good deeds and the punishment of bad deeds. Thus, some would argue that repercussions resulting from deeds whether good or bad are more a natural event than a man-made one. If one were to abide by the way nature intended things, resulting repercussions would always be good. Conversely, if one were to disrupt the way nature intended things, nature gets its revenge.
Revenge is often thought to be blood and guts, manifesting itself in the forms of pain or even death. Likewise, revenge is often thought to be the result of a disastrous deed, a deed that is typically agreed upon to have been not just wrong but also heinous. My own definition of revenge, however, is not nearly as cut-and-dried. I would argue that revenge is often subtle, often pain-free, and often well deserved. I would argue that revenge is a very personal and very individual matter, wearing many different faces. While looked upon by some as a harsh and rash reaction to having been wronged, revenge is always appropriate and just to he who is the revenger. Consequences resulting from one's actions are a form of revenge; a revenge doled out by nature.
William Shakespeare's King Lear is a grave tragedy that is a prime example of the Elizabethan concept of nature's justice and revenge. Lear's kingdom, in my opinion, turns to chaos and vengeance befalls many characters because of a break in the Great Chain of Being. Normalcy is restored only when justice prevails. The Great Chain of Being represents an Elizabethan belief in the order of the universe, its premise being that every existing thing in the universe has its place in a divinely planned hierarchical order (Lovejoy 7). This is visualized as a chain vertically extended. An object's place on the Chain depends on the relative proportion of spirit and matter it contains; the less spirit and the more matter, the lower down it stands. The Chain consists of six links God, Spiritual Beings, Man, Animals, Plants, and Inanimate Objects. Simply put, when one part of the Chain is disturbed, order turns into chaos.
According to this concept, all existing things have their precise place and function in the universe, and to depart from one's proper place is to betray one's nature. Human beings, as noted, are pictured as being between the angels and the beasts. To act against human nature by not allowing reason to rule the emotions is to descend to the level of the beasts. In the other direction, an attempt to go above one's proper place is to court disaster because one would be asserting oneself as equal to or higher than the Gods.
Remember, this Chain is thought to have been ordained by the Gods, each link in it representing a species of being, creature, or object. The links higher on the chain possess greater intellect, mobility, and capability than those lower on the Chain. Accordingly, the higher links have more authority over the lower. For instance, plants only have authority and ability to rule
over minerals. Being superior in nature to inert rock and soil, the plants have divine sanction to draw sustenance from them, and grow upon them, while the minerals and soil support them.
Animals, higher on the Chain, are thought to have natural authority over both inanimate plants and minerals. For instance, horses can trample the rocks and earth, and can also eat plants. Humans, in turn, are thought to possess greater attributes than other animals, and can rule over the rest of the natural world, uprooting weeds and planting gardens, digging up metals and shaping them into tools, and so on. Likewise, spiritual beings such as angels have greater ability than man, and can rule over and control humanity and the rest of the animal world.
The unifying principle holding the Chain together is divine love and rational order (Lovejoy 7). Every being in creation is thought to have its place within this Chain, which entails a certain degree of authority and a certain degree of responsibility to the rest of the Chain. As long as each being knows its place and does its destined duty for the rest of the Chain, all is well.
This Chain's effect and influence are clearly visible in several arenas, one of those being literary. If Shakespeare compares a woman to a vine and her husband to an oak, he doesn't do so merely to talk about her beauty or his strength. Instead, he is emphasizing her subordination to him in the Chain of Being. Likewise, if two characters fight for the throne, one compared to a lion, the other compared to a boar, the comparison implies something about which one has a legitimate claim (Elton 7). Additionally, imagery from the sun, the moon, or other parts of nature often involve an implied set of connotations concerning that object or animals place in nature.
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The Chain has moral implications as well. It becomes a moral imperative for each creature to know its place in the Chain of Being and fulfill its own function without striving to rise above its station or debasing itself by behavior proper to the lower links in the chain. A human who is as gluttonous as a pig, or as lecherous as goat, has allowed the lower, bestial instincts in his nature to supercede his divine capability of reason. He is guilty of fleshly or carnal sin, and denies the rational, spiritual aspect of his nature. Likewise, a human who attempts to rise above his social rank does so through arrogance, pride, or envy of those better than he. Here, the error is an intellectual or spiritual sin.
Politically, and more in relation to the play on which I will be focusing, the belief in the Chain of Being means that monarchy is ordained by God and inherent in the very structure of the universe. Rebellion is a sin not only against the state, but also against heaven itself, for the king is Gods appointed deputy on earth, with semi-divine powers. Conversely, the king has a moral responsibility to God and his people. In return for his absolute power, he is expected to rule his subjects with love, wisdom, and justice. To do otherwise is to abandon those natural qualities that make a noble fit to rule in the first place. Misusing regal authority is a perversion of divine order.
So, this fear of disorder is not merely philosophical, as it has significant political ramifications as well. The proscription against trying to rise beyond one's place is, of course, useful to political rulers, for it helps to reinforce their authority. The implication is that civil rebellion causes the Chain to be broken, and according to the doctrine, this has dire consequences in other realms. It is a sin against God, at least wherever rulers claimed to rule by
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Divine Right, and is suggested that if the sin is of cosmic proportions then civil disorders are often accompanied by meteoric disturbances in the heavens.
How, then, does this Chain apply to the tragedy of revenge in King Lear? On a most basic level, when Lear divides his kingdom, he goes against the natural order, causing chaos. The chaos presents itself in the form of the hateful children Regan, Goneril, and Edmund. Each child acts with unmitigated cruelty toward their parents, becoming more and more like beasts. The deaths of Lear, Goneril, and Edmund are prime examples of justice prevailing for evil, and in Lear's case, unnatural acts.
When reading King Lear and attempting to fully understand nature's role of revenger in it, it is essential to understand this Elizabethan Chain of Being. Lovejoy, in The Great Chain of Being A Study of the History of an Idea, discusses the belief in an established hierarchy within the universe. He writes that everything has its own relative position, even within each individual link, beginning with Heaven, the Divine Being, and the stars and planets above. On earth, the King is next, then the nobles, on down to the peasantry. Men are held to be above women, fathers above children, and the elderly above the young. Holding the lowest position are the beggars and lunatics and, finally, the animals. Interrupting this order is unnatural. We will see how the disruption of this Chain results in punishment after a brief summary of Shakespeare's work.
Lear, King of Britain, divides his land between his two elder daughters, Regan and Goneril, but disinherits his youngest daughter, Cordelia, who refuses to flatter him. Cordelia leaves with her new husband, the King of France. Kent, one of Lear's counselors, is also
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banished from Britain for trying to convince Lear to act with reason toward Cordelia. Simultaneously, Gloucester, Lear's trusted friend, has been deceived by his own bastard son, Edmund. Edmund has plotted to turn Gloucester against his legitimate son, Edgar. Edgar flees for his life, disguising himself as Old Tom.
Once in power, Regan and Goneril work to strip Lear of control. They treat their father with such coldhearted hatred that Lear cannot remain with them. Having nowhere to go, Lear and his Fool are caught outdoors in a tumultuous storm where they meet the disguised Edgar and Kent, who is disguised as a peasant servant. Spurred on by Edmund's plot to banish Gloucester, Regan and her husband, Cornwall, blind Gloucester and send him out to find his own way. In his wanderings, Gloucester meets Lear, recognizes his voice, and tells him of the wrongdoing at the hands of Regan and Goneril. Lear and Cordelia reunite and, together with Kent's forces, battle the combined armies of Edmund, Regan and Goneril.
Many themes are evident in King Lear, but certainly the most prevalent relates to this theme of justice and revenge due to challenging or disregarding the Chain. Shakespeare has developed a tragedy that allows us to see man's descent into chaos. Although Lear is perceived as a man more sinned against than sinning (4..8), the treatment of the main characters encourages the reader to reflect on the presence or lack of justice in this world. The characters also vary in their inclination to view the world from either a fatalistic or moralistic point of view, depending on their beliefs about the presence or absence of a higher power. The theme of justice in relation to higher powers can be illustrated from the perspectives of King Lear, Goneril, Edmund, Gloucester, and Edgar.
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Lear's ultimate fate is death, and his early demise is a direct result of breaching the Great Chain of Being which states that no mortal will abandon his position in the hierarchy of ranking by God; this same hierarchy that has made Lear the King. He sees disorder, a challenge to Nature, in Cordelia and Kent's responses to him, but is wrong about the source he himself has caused the disruption by dividing a peaceful kingdom and forsaking his duties as ruler. Lear's intention of abdicating the throne is apparent from the outset and is seen in the following speech spoken during the opening scene of the play Know that we have divided / in three our kingdom [. . .] (1.1.8). The splitting of Lear's kingdom and the abdication of his throne are not acts of necessity, but acts toward easing the remainder of his life. Thus, Lear is abandoning the position given to him by God.
King Lear's sin is that he disrupted this Chain of Being by relinquishing his throne. By allowing his daughters and their husbands to rule the kingdom, the natural order of things is disturbed. His notion that he can still be in control after dividing the kingdom is a delusion. According to Elizabethan philosophy, it would seem that this is the beginning of his mistakes and is also the cause of the misfortune that occurs later on in the play (Lovejoy 78).
Lear's disruption of the Great Chain of Being is in an unnatural fashion because the abdication of his kingship is without dire or mortal cause. The method of passing down his land to his heirs is also unnatural. Lear informs his daughters that he has divided his kingdom into three parcels, one for each of his daughter's dowries, the largest parcel of kingdom to be awarded to the daughter who proclaims to love him most. This is a violation of the natural order of
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commonly accepted hierarchy that states a father's estate be endowed upon his eldest son. For this, Lear is punished.
An error in judgement and an untempered release of anger are also factors contributing to Lear's downfall. Lear listens to flattery from Goneril when she says, I love you more / than word can wield the / matter (1.1.55-61). Regan compares her own love with Goneril's by saying, I find she names my very deed of love, / Only she comes too short [. . .] (1.1.70-1). Cordelia, however, does not compete with their flattery and praise, merely telling her father that she loves him as a daughter should love a father, with respect and obedience. Lear is so heartbroken by his youngest and, until then, most beloved daughters refusal to praise him that a rage ensues. His judgement is clouded by anger at Cordelia's refusal to praise him with flattery, and he swears by the gods that Cordelia is no longer his daughter, choosing to give her no portion of the land.
Chaos rules the unnatural, according to the Chain as described by Lovejoy (14). Lear makes a devastating mistake that affects his relationship with his daughters by asking them to tell him how much they love him in order that he may divide his kingdom accordingly. Cordelia, the youngest daughter, states that she loves her father the way she is supposed to, as much as any child could love a father but not as much as she will love a husband. On the other hand, Goneril and Regan easily speak the words that their father wants to hear, rather than the truth. Because Lear is not satisfied with Cordelia's response, he turns his back on her and her love. By doing this, he is destroying the natural family unit and lacks the insight to know this. He unjustly
punishes Cordelia by banishing her from the kingdom. He casts out his daughter in an unfatherly fashion, yet is gravely upset by the ingratitude of his other two daughters, Goneril and Regan.
Once again, due to Lear's lack of wisdom, he fails to recognize the sincerity of Cordelia's words. Thus, he puts his relationship with his daughters in jeopardy resulting in a constant source of grief for Lear. Lear holds firm to this belief that the world is governed by the Gods, and believes strongly in justice and revenge. Therefore, he does not question the will of the Gods in letting him suffer from his daughter's unkindness, but instead prays.
Elton reminds us that Shakespeare uses the word nature often, but rarely with the same meaning (144). For instance, Lear personifies nature when he calls Cordelia a wretch whom nature is ashamed / Almost to acknowledge hers (1.1.11-1). Here, it seems as though Lear thinks himself to be particularly special and close to nature because he is presumptuous in believing that he can read Nature's mind. On the same note, he seems to order his goddess, Nature, as though he is in control, commanding Nature to follow his orders. Lear, again, is disturbing the Great Chain of Being by putting himself above the Gods. He disrupts this Chain by unjustly punishing Cordelia and misinterpreting his role in life by assuming to be the lord of creation. For these sins, he is punished when Goneril and Regan turn on him and Cordelia dies. Losing the love of his daughters is the revenge that he is faced with. Thus, it would seem that justice is served. However, Muir suggests that Lear suffers more for his sins than seems reasonable, summing up this concept as follows The world can be to mankind, and has been to Lear, a rack a scene of suffering reiterated past all probability or reason (56).
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Revenge and justice, the kind that is meted out by nature and not man-made, are met when Lear dies at the end of the play. This is a direct result of the actions that he has committed that, while not necessarily evil-hearted, are in direct violation of the Great Chain of Being. Additionally, he is being punished for his cruel and irrational disowning and banishment of Cordelia. Lear's punishment is a result of irrational judgements and unnatural actions.
Goneril suffers the same fate as Lear, but her death is a direct result of a series of vile, ruthless, and despicable actions. The first instance that hints at Goneril's evil nature appears in a conversation between her and Regan after Lear hands down his power of state to them. Goneril proposes to Regan that they join forces in stripping Lear of his authority because she views it as a threat. This would be considered an evil act if Goneril was just a peasant or vassal, to plot treason against the King, but it is worse since Goneril is plotting against her own father. Clearly, she has no respect for Lear as King, superior, or father.
The extent of Goneril's disrespect for hierarchical bonds and her evil nature are further revealed in a letter from her to Edmund. It details Goneril's wish for Edmund to kill her husband, Cornwall. Now, not only has Goneril disregarded her filial bond with Lear by disrespecting him and going against his wishes, she does even worse by disregarding her marital bond with Cornwall and plotting his murder. Finally, passing the point of simply plotting murder, Goneril commits the act herself when she kills her own sister. After poisoning Regan and discovering that Cornwall has proof that she was plotting against him, Goneril feels there is no alternative but to take her own life, which is, ultimately, a fitting vengeance doled out by the Gods for violating the Chain.
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Edmund is another character whose death is a perfect punishment for his acts of betrayal throughout the play. The illegitimate son of Gloucester, Edmund seeks his father's land through scheming and deception. He proclaims that as Gloucester's son, he is entitled to the land, believing that customs of the realm should not be able to keep him from it. Although Gloucester is far from retiring and passing the land on to his legitimate heir, Edgar, Edmund feels that he must already begin plotting against Edgar in order to ensure that it is he who receives the land and not Edgar. Edmund, thus, conceives a letter to Gloucester, signing it in Edgar's name, implying that Edgar would rather kill Gloucester in order to enjoy his estate. Then, in a hurried and hectic conversation, Edmund confuses Edgar and convinces him to flee from Gloucester, giving him the appearance of guilt.
Gloucester, arriving on the scene, is convinced of Edgar's treason. Edmund has removed Edgar from his father's favor, but does not yet possess Gloucester's land or wealth. An opportunity presents itself, however, when Gloucester reveals to Edmund the contents of a letter he has received. Gloucester informs Edmund that a secret power, France, has landed in the realm to revenge disrespect toward Lear. Edmund plans to tell the Duke of Albany of the letter, hoping that this information will make Gloucester look like a traitor in the Duke's eyes. Edmund's plan is to be rewarded with his father's land since it will be stripped away from him for treason. Edmund has challenged the pre-ordained view of nature, and worships the view that upholds survival of the fittest, with no respect for tradition or custom. He laughs at the idea that the heavens determine a person's fate or place in society, and intends to scratch and claw his way to the top, crawling over the bodies of his father and elder brother to do so.
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Edmund's first mistake is in disregarding the given order of royalty that has been dictated by nature. Rightly, he does not stand first in line to inherit from his father. As dictated by the Chain, Edmund's brother is one link higher than he is. So, regardless of the blood bonds between he and his brother, he is violating the Chain by disregarding the preordained hierarchy of royalty. His second mistake, evil and willingness to sacrifice his own family for status and wealth, clearly demands some sort of revenge. It is only fitting that the betrayal of his own blood, both his father and his brother, is answered by death at the hands of Edgar.
Lear, Goneril, and Edmund have each been motivated in different ways. Lear's motivation was an unnatural and irrational motivation. Goneril's heart was of the basest evil and jealousy. Greed and selfishness drove Edmund to the decision that he made. Although the methods and paths of their downfall are different, each person suffers the identical fate as decided by vengeance. What the Chain tells us, then, is that the motivation behind breaking the links is not the most import factor to remember. Whether it is intentional or not, each link that is broken has the same dire consequences. The broken Chain, however, does not stop with these three.
Gloucester plays a parallel role to Lear in the play. He is elderly, gullible, and taken in by his children. Again, the natural unit of the family is disturbed, for Gloucester has a bastard son who is his downfall. However, unlike Lear, he is not weak and infirm but is more good-natured and brave. Like Lear, Gloucester makes reference to Nature. However, Elton feels that Gloucester views Nature as neutral and sees it existing only for man's benefit (114), as evidenced when he says, These late eclipses in the sun and moon portend no good to us /
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though the wisdom of nature can reason it thus and thus, yet nature finds itself scourged by the sequent effects (1..5).
Rather than blame Nature, Gloucester is aware that his problems are a result of his own foolishness. He does not feel that the Gods are necessary to explain Edmund's treason or Cornwall's brutality. However, he does make clear his belief that the Gods are not interested in the affairs of men. Although it may seem as though Gloucester is an atheist, Tillyard believes otherwise Gloucester is not an atheist; he postulates Gods, divine personalities, and if he replaces them with a mechanism of fate or destiny he couldn't ascribe malice to it. What he feels is that there is some mystery in the horror of what's happened to him that goes beyond the tangible human causes (111).
It is true that Gloucester has been lustful and has fathered an illegitimate son as the consequences of his lust. Since this, too, is an unnatural act, it seems justice must be served to restore order. However, to what degree is Gloucester responsible for Edmund's evil behavior? And, is it just revenge that Gloucester's eyes were poked out by Goneril and Regan? This leaves one wondering whether or not justice is served as Gloucester dies at the end of the play, as the punishment seems to exceed the crime.
Edgar is Gloucester's legitimate son who is in danger of losing his right to his inheritance. At first he is the good and dutiful one. At times he is gullible and naïve when responding to his illegitimate brother, Edmund, who tries to take his birth right. Edgar is the moralist in this play. When he reflects on his own undeserved troubles and the suffering of others, there is a religious tone. He has faith in the gods and their vengeance, and is quick to
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give the higher powers the credit for what happens to man. Thus, he says to Gloucester, who believes he has fallen from the edge of a cliff Think that the clearest gods, who make them honors / Of mens impossibilities, have preserved thee (4.5.7-4). He points out the justice of the gods in punishing Gloucester by the hand of Edmund The Gods are just, and of our pleasant vices / Make instruments to plague us (5..48). Edgar believes that there is order in nature. He thinks that there is a natural ebb and flow in human fortunes, meaning that even the worst situation can become better (Elton).
However, he comes to realize that this belief is sometimes challenged. When he finds his father blinded, it becomes obvious that this suffering is renewed. Elton comments that it may seem that nature is indifferent to the fate of any individual (4). Edgar differs from Gloucester in that he takes a moralistic point of view. Muir suggests that while Gloucester feels that there is some mystery in the horror of what's happened to him that goes beyond the tangible human causes [. . .] Edgar [. . .] looks for human causes and assumes that there are powers above who are reacting to events as they should (111).
Why, then, if breaking the Chain results in chaos and punishment to all, is Edgar essentially rewarded in the end. As mentioned earlier, after a disruption in the Chain, life's events return to normal only when order has been restored. Edgar represents this order, and is viewed by the Gods as the only hope of returning normalcy to the land. No justice would be served in punishing Edgar, as he believes in the natural order of things as dictated by Nature. In Edgar's case it seems that he has received his just reward. He does not have an easy time when
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dealing with his brother, Edmund, but perseveres. It would seem that justice is served as Edgar regains his proper position in the natural order of things.
Additionally, we must ask ourselves the following if Edgar is essentially rewarded for his goodness, no revenge being meted out to him as a result of the actions of others, why does Cordelia not have the same privilege? Why must she die? My argument would be that, since it is Lear who makes the most significant break in the Chain, essentially causing the domino effect that is witnessed throughout the play, it is he who must suffer the most. What greater revenge could there be on Lear than the death of his most beloved daughter? Is it fair? No. But, revenge often is not.
Today's Great Chain of Being could more aptly be referred to as karma; reaping what one sews; just desserts; or lying in one's bed after having made it. In this regard, Revenge (the person) can still be seen as some cosmic force that is introduced into our lives as a direct result of some road we have chosen to take, or some decision we have chosen to make.
As a lesson to us today, it is debatable whether each decision we make is weighted on a cosmic scale with justice waiting to punish the evil or reward the good, but what is certain is that each decision we make plays a direct role in our future. In King Lear, each of the characters discussed have varying interpretations of the importance of the higher powers affecting their fortunes, and the natural revenge that occurs when they go against the Great Chain of Being. As well, justice is handed out in different degrees. In the eyes of the characters, Shakespeare succeeds in illustrating the universal conflict that members of society have always had in understanding their fate in this world.
Bloom, Harold, Ed. King Lear. New York Chelsea House, 187.
Elton, William R. King Lear and the Gods. San Marino The Huntington Library, 168.
Lovejoy, Arthur Oncken. The Great Chain of Being A Studyof the History of an Idea. Cambridge Harvard UP, 164.
Muir, Kenneth, and Stanley Wells, Eds. Aspects of King Lear. London Cambridge UP, 18.
Tillyard, Eustace M. The Elizabethan World Picture. New York Random House, 15.
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