French Immigration in Canada with special view to the 17th century

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

. French immigration in the 17th century

. Immigrant statistics

.1. Number of immigrants

.. Origin of immigrants

4. The turning point in 1760

5. French immigration to British-Canada

6. Francophones in the Canadian society

7. Outlook The future of Quebec

8. List of references

1. Introduction

Je me souviens. Exactly this will be done over the following pages. This paper will deal

with the French immigration to Canada and especially emphasize on the early phase, the immigration to Nouvelle France in the 17th century.

Problematic about the French immigration is the time span. If one thinks of 154 as the starting year of French engagement in North America (cf. Kempf 17 7), the year in which Jaques Cartier set out on his first journey to that region which is now Canada by order of the king of France (cf. Sautter 17 ), this paper would have to cover 46 years. This approach is also difficult in another way whilst one usually speaks of other ethnic groups (Italians, Ukrainians, etc.) as unmistakably immigrants, that term is mostly inappropriate when speaking of the French, who just as the British can't be described as immigrants due to their early arrival and therefore long history of settling

(cf. Burnet/Palmer 18 1; Ttu de Labsade 10 4). Hence, the French population doesn't need to be integrated in a Canadian society but needs to be understood as a Canadian society that has lived in that area for centuries, even when the immigration waves brought lots of immigrants into the country. The history of French immigration led to the present ongoing conflict about the role of Quebec in the Canadian confederation and the fight over separatism and clinging on to Canada as one country.

Nevertheless, the main focus of this paper will be on Nouvelle-France and therefore on the 17th and 18th century. In doing that, the early phase of French immigration to Canada will be covered, particularly the conquest of New France by the British in 1760 as the turning point, which pretty much ended the phase of French immigration that year

(cf. Burnet/Palmer 18 15). The reason for even discussing this topic is to find an answer to the present mood of the Quebecois, who after years of feeling repressed by Anglophones finally have stepped up and embraced their historical background and their unique status as one of the founding peoples of Canada.

After this short introduction, the focal point of immigration to Canada will be discussed, giving an overview of the settlements in and immigration to New France three centuries ago. The next chapter will be about the end of the French colonial reign in Canada and the rise of the British colonial empire after the defeat of the French in 1760. Following this, the since then British-ruled and British-influenced Canada will be looked at. In addition, the position of the Francophones in Candian society will be described. Finally, the last chapter will give an outlook for not just the future of Quebec but also for all of Canada, and furthermore mention the separatist tendencies of the Quebecois.

. French immigration in the 17th century

The French colonial efforts in North America in the 17th century were above all characterized by a backwardness in comparison to other European powers, in particular the British. Only very few French settled in the territory of what is today Canada, and the ones who did were outnumbered by the other colonial powers

Alors que l'Angleterre et les Pays-Bas ont djà […] tabli des colonies qui de Terre-Neuve à la

Virginie comptent environ 600 colons, la Nouvelle-France ne supporte que deux fragiles

tablissements l'Acadie du cap de Sable où vivent une vingtaine de Français, et le Canada qui

n'est que le comptoir de Qubec. La Nouvelle-France de 167, c'est en tout cas une centaine

d'habitants. (Trudel 18 )

This situation was not least dependent on the adverse living conditions and insufficient supplies the few settlers were faced with

Qubec n'a de vivres que ce qu'y laissent pour l'hiver les navires qui rentrent en France; le

Canada n'a ni charrue pour labourer, ni moulin pour faire farine; depuis trois ou quatre ans

seulement, les de Can font un peu d'levage dans leur baronnie du cap de Tourmente.

(Trudel 18 4)

Also sharing this view is Françoise Ttu de Labsade, though only for a very early phase, the 16th century, about which he writes

Ces tentatives [de fonder un tablissement au Canada] se soldent par des checs les Français

supportant mal les rigeurs de l'hiver prissent du scorbut et les relations avec les Amrindiens

deviennent tendues. (Ttu de Labsade 10 4)

Sautter traces the bad supply system back to a wrong priority establishment

Die halbherzigen Anstrengungen hatten die weiße Bevölkerung in Kanada bis 1660 nur auf etwa

000 Menschen wachsen lassen, zu wenig, um die Irokesengefahr zu bannen; und die Kriegsnot

war nicht das einzige Übel. Dem Pelzhandel hatte bisher das Hauptinteresse gegolten, und man

hatte wenig Landwirtschaft getrieben. Auch jetzt noch mußte der größere Teil des Bedarfs an

Lebensmitteln und Kleidung vom Mutterland eingeführt werden. (Sautter 17 )

Not as negative and harsh characterize Charbonneau et al. the living conditions when they describe the situation as following

Quand les Français entreprennent de dfricher les rives de la grande rivière , ils ne se

heurtent à aucun habitant vraiment stable. L'espace est libre, c'est à dire que nulle population

sdentaire ne l'occupe. […] La saison froide est certes longue et rigoureuse, mais le territoire

n'est pas hostile pour autant. L'abondance des prcipitations, combines aus fortes tempratures

d'te, favorisent la flore et la faune et, par consquent, les activits agraires.

(Charbonneau et al. 16 1)

Named as a positive factor, however, can be the relatively great expansion of trade routes, which allowed trade with the Indian population. Especially shipping became very important

Ce que la Nouvelle-France a de mieux, c'est justement ce rseau de traite qui tend partout ses

ramifications en Acadie, les rivières Saint-Jean et Pentagout ; au Canada, le Saguenay, le

Saint-Maurice (ou rivière des Trois-Rivières), le Richelieu (ou rivière des Iroquois),

l'Outaouais, alors rivière des Algonquins. (Trudel 18 4)

Companies were founded to encourage and to help with the organizational handling of immigration. These companies not only specifically recruited settlers and shipped them overseas, but beyond that also obliged to supply the settlers with rations for a three-year period until they would be able to support themselves. About this Marcel Trudel writes

En plus de transporter en Nouvelle-France en quinze ans le total de 4000 personnes, la

Compagnie doit, les trois premières annes de leur arrive, les y loger, nourrir et entretenir ;

pass ces trois ans, la Compagnie s'en dchar-gera en leur assignant la quantit de terres

dfriches, suffisantes pour leur subvenir, avec le bl ncessaire pour les ensemencer la

première fois, et pour vivre jusqu'à la recolte prochaine […]. (Trudel 18 5)

These lines alone show very clearly the enormous problems which awaited potential immigrants in Nouvelle-France. All of these problems can be attributed to the almost nonexistent infrastructure. Therefore, the companies' promises had to be adequately attractive for people to embark on the venture of immigrating to North America. Decisive in this context was the circumstance that every settler was guaranteed farming land after the expiration of the three-year period

Nous avons ici deux fondement de la coloniasation de cetter priode le dbut de la politique

d'engagement pour trois ans et l'obligation pour les Cent-Associs de concder des

terres aus immigrants qui restent sur place. (Trudel 18 6)

But the goal, recruitment of 4.000 settlers over a period of 15 years, wasn't achieved, particularly since a couple of ships of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle-France were raided in 168 and never reached Quebec

Von diesem Fehlschlag beim ersten hoffnungsfreudigen Unternehmen erholte sich die

Gesellschaft nie wieder richtig. Die 4.000 Siedler, die innerhalb von 15 Jahren nach Amerika

hätten gebracht werden sollen, wurden nicht angeworben. 1645 war man dem Bankrott nahe.

(Sautter 17 8)

Especially skilled workmen were needed in Nouvelle-France in the very beginning. To win them over for at least a temporary stay, they were granted special conditions and given ease concerning their practise

[C]eux qui auront exerc leurs arts et mtiers en la dite Nouvelle-France durant six and

seront, s'ils retournent en France, rputs pour maîtres de chef d'uvre et pourront, comme

tout maître, tenir boutique ouverte dans Paris et autres villes ; c'tait, par cette mthode du

stage, lever systmatiquement les gens de mtier au niveau de la bourgeoisie. (Trudel 18 7)

Another method to engage French people in Nouvelle-France was not just by giving them land but at the same time also the title that comes along with the property. Chosen people of bourgeois origin were ennobled not de jure but de facto. Aristocrats furthermore received an additional title. This system was suitable to recruit ceux qui veulent s'lever dans une socit où le prestige social et la possession de la terre sont d'une souveraine importance'' (Trudel 18 7) for the colonization of Nouvelle-France. This was deliberately aimed at those bourgeois circles that already were financially stable and couln't be tempted to go overseas for financial reasons. However, it meant a lot to them to gain a prestigious title and thereby get closer to or eventually become a member of the nobility.

. Immigrant statistics

.1. Number of immigrants

The evidence of how many people actually came to New France and in which years turns out to be very difficult. The reasons thereof are complex. First of all, no passenger lists existed before 166, hence it can't be proved without a doubt whether all recruited settlers really did start off on the passage (Trudel 18 1). In addition, not every ship reached its goal because they sank either due to severe weather or enemy attacks (cf. Trudel 18 1). Furthermore, many people fell sick or died during the passage because of insufficient hygienic conditions (cf. Trudel 18 1). Concerning the unreliabilty Trudel writes

Tout en dressant un catalogue de ces immigrants, nous avons voulu (c'est le seul moyen

d'observer l'volution du mouvement migratoire) attribuer à chaque immigrant l'anne de son

arrive. C'est ici le terrain le plus instable. Nous ne connaissons d'une façon certaine l'anne de

l'arrive que pour 10 immigrants sur 106, soit seulement un sur trois. (Trudel 18 14)

Despite the unlucky circumstances Trudel still makes the following statistical statement for the period from 16 to 166

Arriving immigrants 16-166 (Trudel 18 )

Number of ships14

Annual average 4,

Identified immigrants 106

On the basis of these numbers it would mean that only 10,5 identified immigrants came to Nouvelle-France per year. The actual number would clearly have to be higher. Other writers give even lesser numbers for that time span, which makes Burnet/Palmer note that during the 150 years of the French regime [1610-1760], immigration was low, averaging only sixty-six persons a year (Burnet/Palmer 18 1).

.. Origin of immigrants

Now the question of where in France the immigrants specifically came from will be answered. The data concerning this is more reliable. Out of the .106 identified immigrants, the origin of .0 is known

Origin of immigrants by province (Trudel 18 5)

Normandie 44Champagne 44 Gascogne7

Aunis15Angoumois 4Languedoc 7

Perche 1Picardie Flandres 6

Paris 160Touraine 4Nivernais6

Poitou 154Guyenne Provence 5

Saintogne 10Berry 1Comt de Foix

Maine 101Lyonnais 11La Marche

Anjou 8Lorraine 10Avignon 1

Ile-de-France 6Bourgogne Barn 1

Bretagne 60Limousin 8Franche-Comt 1

Orlanais46Auvergne 7Savoie1

According to this overview it can be said that the large part of the French immigrating to Canada came from western France, more than 0% came from the Normandy. The high proportion of western Frenchmen can partly be explained by the strategically convenient location at the Atlantic Ocean, particularly because the ships to Canada casted off from the French Atlantic harbors, as the following breakdown shows

Immigration according to harbors (Trudel 18 7)

RegionHarborImmigrants fromOf .0 immig.Share in %

Atlantic-NorthRouenPicardie, Perche, Bretagne, Normandie7657,6 %

Atlantic-CenterLa RochellePoitou, Aunis, Saintonge, La Marche, Limousin, Angoumois 6160, %

Atlantic-SouthBordeauxGuyenne, Bearn Gascogne11,5 %

Pays de la LoireSaint-NazaireAuvergne,Berry, Anjou, Maine, Orlanais, Nivernais, Touraine8514 %

Marcel Trudel explains the large part of Norman immigrants as follows

Sa large façade sur la mer, ses traditions de voyage au long cours en font un pays à ressources

migratoires. D'autres explications à court terme l'activit des Legardeur et des Leneuf vers

166, les suites des fureurs paysannes qui clatent en Normandie en 16, la part essentielle

que prennent les marchands de Rouen au commerce du Canada, de 165 à 166.

(Trudel 18 5)

Jones, who also deals with migration in the 1th and 0th century, explains the dominance of the Normans and Britans with climatic circumstances

Certainly, Canadian and Quebec officials who sought colonists for the plains of western Canada

and for the newly opened regions of Quebec directed their appeal to the inhabitants of

Normandy and Brittany who, they thought, would be capable of adjusting to the rigours of

Canadian winters. (Jones 18 )

And although Jones didn't explicitly make this statement about the immigration to Nouvelle-France in the 17th century, it should nevertheless be valid for this epoch and seen as a reason for the high number of immigrants from particularly that part of France.

4. The turning point in 1760

The events of 175/60 and its effects on the French settlers in Canada, that much can be said at this point, are indelibly anchored in the collective memory of the Franco-Canadians and always present. The French engagement in North America was accompanied by rivalry, hostility and wars with the British and usually those conflicts overseas were often in an interdependent relation with clashes within Europe

[…] l'Angleterre, pour sa part, cherche à prospecter la même territoire que la France. Les deux

pays vont se faire une lutte quasi continue jusqu'en 176. […] Les pays d'Europe entretiennent

de grandes rivalits qu'ils tentent de rsoudre par la guerre. L'Amrique du Nord devient un

champs de bataille où la France et l'Angleterre peuvent intervenir, mesurer leur forces et trouver

une monnaie d'change. (Ttu de Labsade 10 44)

In 175, when 70.000 French settlers were up against a British colony 0 times stronger, the French had a few early successful attempts, partially resulting from support with allied Indian tribes, but ultimately were militarily defeated by the British. Important stages in this were the fight for Fort Quebec on the Plains of Abraham (late 175) and the capitulation of Montreal the following year. In 176 the king of France ceded all of Canada to the king of England in the Treaty of Paris, sealing the fate of Nouvelle-France. France had to acknowledge the autorit de l'Angleterre sur presque toute son ancienne colonie (Ttu de Labsade 10 45).

After a couple of transitional years the French subjects of the British monarchy profited from an incident that was to revolutionize the British colonial empire in North America with the more and more noticeable independence endeavors of the 1 New England states, the later founding states of the United States of America, the British thought it necessary to defuse the situation in the newly-founded colony Quebec, in order to prevent that the Francophones could turn into another trouble spot, which wasn't needed at all during that time

[…] 1774, im Jahr der Boston Tea Party, erließ das britische Parlament die Quebec-Akte […]

Autorität statt Volksvertretung und Anerkennung der Besonderheit Quebecs waren ihre

Quintessenz. Ein Gouverneur und ein ernannter Rat von durchschnittlich 0 Mitgliedern ohne

Rücksicht auf die Abstammung reagierten von 1775 an die Kolonie. Englisches Strafrecht und

französisches Zivilrecht bestanden nun offiziell nebeneinander. Das seigneurale System wurde

in gleicher Weise wie die Ausübung katholischen Gottesdienstes garantiert, und das Recht der

römischen Kirche, einen Bischof zu ernennen, wurde ebenso bestätigt wie das Anrecht des

Klerus auf die Kirchensteuer. [...] [F]ranzösischerseits konnte man mit den gewährten

Privilegien zufrieden sein. (Sautter 17 8)

The concessions made by the British government to the francophone population of Quebec were to ensure that the new subjects would remain loyal and calm during a conflict between Great Britain and the New England states and not support the American independence endeavors. This strategy proved to be very successful because all appeals by American separatists to join the fight for independence on the side of the United States of America went unheard.

5. French immigration to British-Canada

Concerning the immigration of French to British-Canada since 1760, it must be said that British and French people had a very sceptical or disapproving attitude at first

In the decades following the British conquest of 1760, few French immigrants came to Canada.

Until Napoleon's fall in 1815, Britain and France were frequently at war. France did not

encourage emigration and Britain did not want French immigrants to settle in a colony whose

largely French population is often viewed as a threat. (Jones 18 4)

In the meantime, the Roman-Catholic church tried to overcome its problem of being understaffed in Canada by specifically recruiting French priests. This custom went on to be prohibited by the British government. Only with the outbreak of the French Revolution did some pastors come to Canada from France, this time even with the permission of the government in London

The French Revolution offered the Canadian church new possibilities as nearly 8000 French

priests fled across the Channel to England. London, interested in reducing the number of

emigrs on British soil, now agreed that some could come to Canada. Only about fifty did […].

(Jones 18 4)

After 1840 more French clergymen went overseas, especially since the Bishop of Montreal personally set out to France for recruitment in 184; between 187 and 1876 5 people were recruited. Another wave can be registered after 1880, which is in connection with the declericalisation of France after the foundation of the III. Republic. Between the turn of the century and the outbreak of World War I about 000 clergymen emigrated to Quebec. Jones sums up the immigration movement of the 1th century as following

French immigration to Canada in the nineteenth century was a relatively small-scale

phenomenon. Perhaps 50,000 French were admitted to Canada between 180 and 110. (In the

same period, 470,000 emigrated to the United States.) (Jones 18 6)

During this time until World War II there have been several specific dmarches to make more French people immigrate to Canada. That is why in 1887 the Socite d'immigration française was founded and the Canadian government sent a new immigration commissioner, Paul Wiallard, to Paris in 10. But the results of these efforts were less higher immigration numbers but more so diplomatic ill feelings. The French government interpreted the recruiting of immigrants as a violation of effective French law and even filed a complaint with the British ambassador in Paris against this practise. To the question of why even into the 150s such few French people emigrated to Canada, Jones gives the following answer

The traditional explanation has been that the French in general did not want to emigrate and that

the French government impeded emigration. This explanation is partly true though it is

incomplete. After the war, France suffered from an acute labour shortage as well as from a

scarcity of dollars and imposed severe restriction on the capital that emigrants could take with

them. Before 151 […] the limit was a mere 00$. (Jones 18 11)

And even for the time after 145 it can be marked that the share of French people in the total immigration number is relatively small, only ,% for the period between 146 to 17. Still, the biggest part of French immigrants (about 75%) flows into the francophone provine Quebec (Jones 18 18).

Detailed figures give the following overview

French immigration 100-18 (cf. Information Canada 174 ff.; Jones 18 18)

100-18 5

11-44 181

146-50 4 781

151-57 8

158-6 1 88

16-671 0

168-77 47

174-7 17 785

180-8 0 187

100-8175 45

Interesting and worth mentioning in this context is the fact that after World War II a few people of French ethnic origin came to Canada as refugees, expellees or stateless persons, although they didn't necessarily were from France or French citizens. Not the country of origin or the nationality was noted in that case but the ethnic origin (cf. Information Canada 174 44). Furthermore, some immigrants, who came to Canada as refugees, stated France as their country of birth (cf. Information Canada 174 46).

6. Francophones in the Canadian society

Generally it can be assumed that during the 1th and 0th century French immigrants worked in lots of different jobs and presently still are doing so, which makes it difficult to distinguish those immigrants from the host society (Jones 18 4). But a typical French phenomenon was that integration, especially in the employment field, was a lot more unproblematic in the francophone Quebec than in the anglophone rest of Canada

(cf. Jones 18 4). At the beginning of the 0th century, from 106 to 110, 4% of all immigrants of French origin were farmers, 16% were skilled workers and 11% were unskilled workers. About the phase after World War II Jones writes

After World War II, French immigrants to Canada had, on the whole, higher levels of education

than persons born in Canada and than many other immigrant groups. This situation can be

explained by the fact that the French group was composed especially of independent

immigrants, a group usually more highly educated than sponsored immigrants. (Jones 18 5)

In general, those Francophones who also spoke English well had a better chance for a promotion and success in their jobs than those, whose knowledge of English was insufficient. Jones explains that studies in Quebec in the 170s have showed that French immigrants who knew English at the time of their arrival generally obtained higher salaries than those who were unilingual (Jones 18 6).

7. Outlook The future of Quebec

At the end of this paper the reader may expect some kind of summary or a synthesis

- in short, a concluding chapter in which the most important events and the ideas gained so far are once again compiled in a pithy form. But instead of repeating already given statements, which the complexity of the topic hardly allows anyway, it may be rather interesting to direct the reader's attention towards the future. This analysis should have made it easier for the reader to understand the situtation of the French or rather Francophones over the past centuries. This understanding is necessary if one wants to wisely assess the current conflict about the future of Quebec and with that also the future of Canada. The defeat on the Plains of Abraham in 175 put an end to the age of French colonialism in North America, but gave way to a lenghty conflict between two ethnic groups, Anglo- and Francophones, for the following years. Up until now this conflict seems to also be responsible for the fact that Canada very often is falsely perceived as a bicultural and not a pluralist society, simply because this discussion overshadows all other ethnic groups.

In 180 and 15, two approaches that were to find a constitutioal compromise for all involved failed. That caused quite a reaction in Quebec. From then on the Quebecois started voting for parties whose political goal it was to separate Quebec from Canada, mainly the Parti Qubcois (PQ) and the Bloc Qubcois. As the main reason for the striving for independence Kempf mentions the refusal of the 'Anglos' to constitutionally acknowledge Quebec's special status (cf. Kempf 17 7). The Francophones in Quebec felt threatened and enacted several language laws in order to strenghten the French language and repress the English one. It must be taken into consideration that in this - now and then very heated discussion language is equalized with culture, which must be preserved. In addition, many Francophones fear to lose their influence even in Quebec. Since 180 the birthrate in Quebec has declined and is now below the total Canadian average. And even this natioal average has a downward tendency, which is why Canada needs immigration to compensate its decline in population. Although is has to be mentioned that in relation to the population, proportionally only half as many immigrants come to Quebec than to Canada. The thesis of foreign infiltration is therefore somewhat invalidated.

Concerning the two referenda, which were supposed to introduce Quebec's independence, it can be said that a third referendum won't be long in coming (cf. Kempf 17 7). But the matter of a possible separation of Quebec from Canada raises lots of questions Quebec is economically interwoven to such a degree with Canada that a separation involves considerable difficulties. It is questionable whether an independent Quebec would even be able to economically survive on its own, without the important transfer payments from Ottawa. Can an independent Quebec join NAFTA and pursue custom-reduced trade with the rest of North America? Wouldn't the unity of the rest of Canada be at stake if the Atlantic provinces Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island were cut off from the other Canadian provinces by a corridor qubcois? And how are the non-francophone people in Quebec (especially Anglophones and Aboriginals) going to react in case of a separation?

One can guess the political explosives that are hidden behind the pointed out questions, with which Canada will have to deal with rather sooner than later. Quebec, nevertheless, will most likely strive for an actual independence. Given the Francophones' historical background and the everlasting repression by the English (-speaking) it seems as if they have finally pulled together to fight for their rightful acknowledgement of distinctiveness.

Burnet, Jean R.; Palmer, Howard. 18. Coming Canadians an introduction to a History of Canada's Peoples. Toronto McClelland & Stewart.

Charbonneau, Hubert et al.. 16. ''La population française de la valle du Saint-Laurent avant 1760''. In Atlas historique du Qubec population et territoire, sous la direction de Serge Courville. Sainte-Foy (Qubec) University Press.

Information Canada (d.). 174. Immigration and population statistics. Manpower and Immigration. Ottawa.

Jones, Richard. 18. The French since 1760. In Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. Toronto University Press.

Kempf, Udo. 17. Zwischen Separatismus und Föderalismus. In Das Parlament.

N. 1-, p. 7.

Ttu de Labsade, Françoise. 10. Le Qubec un pays, une culture. Qubec Boral.

Trudel, Marcel. 18. La seigneurie des Cent-Associs, 167-166''. In Histoire de la Nouvelle-France. Vol.III. Montral Fides.

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My Sacred History

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My family comes from all around the world. My great grandpa was from Ireland and my great grandma was from Germany. On my dads side his parent were from England and Scotland. My mother and father met and married here in the U.S. both at the young age of nineteen. They had my first sister Courtney in 180. My mother then gave birth to my other older sister Kristin in 181. My older brother, Michael, was born in 186. Then I was put into this world in 187. My mother wasn't done yet, she had my little brother Matthew who was born in 10. Finally and last but not least my little sister Tracie was born in 11.

I was baptized on January , 188 at St. Michaels' Church. On that day I was it was official that Rosemary Wells, my grandmother was sworn into being my God mother. Also, Charles Sauer, my grandmas' best fried was given the opportunity to be my Godfather.

As I started to grow up and become more aware of all the people, places, and things around me, I decided to explore the world a little more. From what my parent tell me, I was always a pretty calm and quiet child as I was growing up, but I still managed to get in to a little mischief and get into trouble a few times. Although being young and fully unaware of all the sinful and bad things in the world my mother seemed to always be the more friendly parent and completely understand that I did not know any better and that I did not yet know the difference between right and wrong. My father was also a very caring guy for when I can remember and loved me very much; he just had a different point of view on parenting and different perspective on punishment. As far back as I can recall, I remember being yelled at by my father for running out the front door and running out in the road when I was about four years old. As each punishment kept on coming one after another I began to learn from my mistakes and correct myself. Although being very excited to start going to preschool there were also a few bad things that were going on at the same time in my life that I was not fully aware of what was going on. At age five my parent began to see differences in each other and figured the best way to resolve the problem was to get a divorce. When I was five, I really had no clue to what exactly happened in a divorce, a matter in fact I did not even know what a divorce was then. I finally learned what I t was when my sister had explained it to me and described it by simply saying it's when your parents live separately and never go back together again. From there on I did not know what to expect later in my life and how my life was going to be forever changed from that one significant event. For me life was pretty difficult as a young child still not fully aware of everything. I discovered that since my parents had a divorce and lived in two separate places that meant a new whole change in my life. My father had moved out into Lancaster to live with his mother and father, and my mother stayed in the house where we were living in presently. My three sisters, two brothers and I all had to switch each week and stay with one of my parents for a week at a time. I wasn't as physically shaped as much as emotionally shaped from this event that I had to go through as a child and I think , because of my parents divorce I believe I would be like who I am today in various ways. Like my mother always says, everything is meant to happen for a reason.

Going into grade school and feeling like I was old enough now to take responsibility, my little sister Tracie had just been born before I went into Kindergarten. I could not wait to go to kindergarten. In my first year of grade school at St. Michaels, I had my wonderful teacher Mrs. Barwinki to guide me though the year. Whenever I think about kindergarten, I think of the reading loft. The reading loft was the best place in the whole classroom because you could just sit down, relax and read a book silently. I was always interested in reading and learned to read before I went into kindergarten. My best friends in kindergarten were Brad Kernan and Joey Bluebaulgh. We had the best times together and always loved to go to each others house.

Moving on into first grade with my teacher Ms. Lazzeroff we, as a class were becoming very involved with religion. I finally got involved with religion and started to understand who God and Jesus were around the age of six. As a first grader I believe that I was most interested in religion and was more concerned with the topics we studied than in any other subject. I also began going to CCD as a first grader. That's where I met my new friend Pat Kelly. He and I have never had more fun than we did then. Our times were great together. A lot of the times after school we met up with each other and rode our bikes together around the neighborhood and go on bike trails.

Second grade was pretty ordinary for me having the teacher Ms. Sauter. In second grade things started to really change and get serious. There was no more nap time or snack time, instead it was studying math problems and doing spelling. Spelling was by far my favorite subject. Not only was I pretty good at it, I loved to have a good challenge with spelling big words. I was still really good friends with Pat Kelly and Brad Kernan as a second grader. But I was also making more friends. I became best friends with Abby Gerhing and Jordan Furbee. We were all very close classmate buddies and had fun all the time together. They definitely had a big influence on me as a younger child, growing up and becoming a more mature person. Also around second grade my whole family started going to church more often now that I could accept the bread and wine at church.

Third grade was probably one of the worst years in grade school. Only because I had the teacher Mrs. Green, the mean, mean, homework machine. Each year was getting more and more serious which really didn't seem like a good thing to me. School actually started to get a little more challenging and more demanding. We were now being given lots and lots of homework each and every night and were starting to loose some of my free time on the days after school. This year was also a very good year in another point of view because I started to meet a lot of new people, such as Sean Gilliand, Alex Zarilli, Cara Fowler and Anthony Ceritelli. That was pretty much our big gang. I was still friends with many of my other previous friends too. Basically my social life had pretty much developed in third grade. Science was my best and certainly my favorite subject in third grade. We started to learn all about plants and other things on this planet, and the universe. I remember winning the best project award for a project on the planet Uranus. I had also gotten into art when I was about seven and became very interested in it. I had a few pieces of artwork go into the school art fair and I remember being very proud of myself then. I think that's where my whole interest in art had begun and developed me to how much I love art today.

Fourth grade brings back many memories. Such as my teacher, Ms. Taylor who now volunteers at Shepard's Corner. Fourth grade was a big part in my life. I would say that this year had the greatest impact on my life so far. My mother had moved to a new house which was a pretty fun time and my father had now moved back to the previous house we all use to live in. I had pretty much become aware of who everyone was in my class by fourth grade. I was becoming very close friend with everyone that I could. I met Dan Hensley at a birthday party that I was invited to and became good pals with him. During the time in fourth grade, I was going to a few more social events. Such as going to the movies on Friday night and going to D.A.R.E. skating parties every other week which were very fun. I started to also have enemies also. Davide Cugini and I didn't see eye to eye and were not quite best buds. We got into a fight and both had to face the consequences and soon we both had forgiven each other and became pretty good friend from then on. This was also the year where you were allowed to participate in sport activities. I decided to run track, play basketball, and play volleyball for my fourth grade year. I can remember still loving the subject Spelling and was very good at it then. My fist penance had also arrived in fourth grade. I wasn't exactly sure what to expect or what to do but in a way it felt kind of special to me.

I don't know whether to say that fifth grade was my favorite year or worst year.

Ms. McConnell was my teacher and was a fabulous Math teacher. That's when I became interested in math and all the interesting things in it that I never really saw before. For many, whenever they heard math they were sick to their stomach, for me it was the opposite. Although I wasn't getting an A in it, I was till very interested in it.

There was the moment where I had one the class Spelling Bee and went on to face the rest of the class winners all the way up to eighth grade. Although I did not go any farther than that I still felt good about my self and proud of how far I got. Basketball was a kind of a must do thing in fifth grade. I mean that if you didn't play basketball, then you weren't considered to be cool. Part of the reason that I played basketball was because everyone was doing it. But I also loved playing it also. I also did Track again that year as my father being the head coach and helped a lot through out the season. He had pushed me to the limits and made me run 5K road races almost every Saturday from then on. At first I didn't think that they were necessary and I started to get tired of them plus I hated dealing with all the nervousness each night before the race in the morning. But I would like to thank him because he pushed me so hard through each training and race he has put me to where I am athletically now. My friends had pretty much stayed the same in fifth grade. I didn't get into any fights or anything but I still ran into a few other problems. There were a lot of peer pressuring and other bad things people were trying to get me to do. Such as cheating or breaking a window or lying to a teacher all had come into my life in fifth grade. As all these other things began to come into my life things started getting tougher. I was given my first C on a report card and my grades weren't as good as the previous years. I was still attending Church every Sunday with my family and I was becoming to be more aware of God and Jesus and took them pretty serious from then on. Now that I was focused on Religion more, now I tried to become what was a real true Catholic.

Sixth grade was a very tough year for me emotionally, physically and mentally. Although Mrs. Such, my sixth grade teacher, was very nice and understanding it still didn't really help the fact that things were getting even tougher. My Grandpa Wells had died when I was twelve and was very depressing to me because I had looked up to for so long. My Grandpa Wells had taught me all of his secrets about fishing and all his techniques. This put me through a lot of hard times and set me back for a while. Going into sixth grade I was expecting a lot. Not necessarily all god things, but not also all bad things. Obviously both had to come at some time in life. My grades were pretty fine and steady in sixth grade but to my father he always believed that I could do better and learn more, so I tried as hard as possibly could. It was also pretty hard to keep up with my school work while focusing on sports too. I participated in Track, Basketball and Cross Country during my sixth grade year with my father being my coach for both Track and Cross Country. My relationship with others had grown very strong. I was very concerned with my parents' conditions and health and focused on trying my best to please them. This also went for my Grandma too who I probably saw the most each day in my life because she babysitted me for.

I will never forget my seventh grade year. It was just a fantastic year. Everything went my way and everything always felt like it was a good thing to me. Although there were a few bumps in the road. My homeroom teacher Mr. Rutter was a very exciting and enthusiastic guy. He and I had a very good relationship with each other and could talk with each other real easily. He basically introduced me into playing the guitar in seventh grade. At first I didn't really think much about playing the guitar, but until I met him he showed me everything. He gave lessons after school and taught me how to play the guitar for about a year or so. I also had to keep up on my school work too. Over all I did pretty well in seventh grade. It got tough sometimes and the homework piled up sometimes but I wasn't going to let that get in my way. My favorite subject was Math. Only because Mr.Rutter was the first teacher who I could easily work with. He was very elaborate on everything and almost made it too easy for me. I was elected for class student council that year and did my best to stand out and change the school. I ran track, did basketball and Cross Country. Unfortunately during my seventh grade Cross Country year I had seriously injured my ankle in a race and was out for almost the whole season. So far religiously I have felt pretty strong in what I believe in. I had a pretty strong relationship with God and a good understanding of the Bible. I attended Mass at St.Michael Church every Sunday.

Eighth grade was outstanding and felt so outgoing that year. My teacher was Mr.Kendrach, one of my personal favorite teachers. He taught American History for my class and me and did a fabulous job at it. He always got everyone involved during class and always helped a lot of people who were a little confused at times in the best and most comfortable ways. He was very easy to talk to and also a very funny guy as well. He got me to feel that maybe Social Studies was my favorite subject and helped me to excel in it. So I would probably say that History was my favorite class in Eighth grade. I was almost great friends with pretty much everyone in my grade and had fully got to know everyone. My friends and I were hanging out constantly on the weekends and were meeting new people every weekend from other schools at the dances. I met Mike Kundla at a dance and he got me addicted to skateboarding that year. Ever since then I am obsessed with skateboarding and can't stop. Although it just didn't feel right having so much fun all the time and taking school as a joke. In eighth grade, my grades dropped dramatically. I use to get descent grades and now I was getting C's, D's and even my first F. I had felt so angry with myself and I wanted to change things all around. My social life in eight grade was getting ahead of my school work and I needed to do something about it because I knew that I was going to go to St.Charles next year and I needed to get my act cleaned up. My father was also very concerned with my grades and was very disappointed with my academics. My mother had also felt the same truly helped me with my schoolwork to get me where I needed to be in order to get to St.Charles. Eighth grade was my year for Confirmation and also for many others. I had never felt as close to God before in my whole life. For some reason I took confirmation so seriously and was very close to God at the end of my Eighth grade year.

Going from elementary school to Junior High was a very strange time for me. I had felt so confident going into seventh and eight grade hoping for the best to turn out for me. Emotionally I was going through some tough times. I do not know why I was getting depressed a lot of the time and for some reason always seemed to focus on all the bad things going on. I had a few relatives pass away in Junior High and never felt so emotionally hurt in my life before. Spiritually I was growing very close to God and trying my best to get a better relationship with Him. I was so spiritually connected with God because all the hard time I went through I always went to god first and tried to calm myself down. My mother had remarried to the kindest man in the world. He also gone through a lot of hard times and knew what I had been going through and helped me out. He gave me faith in Good when I doubted Him and when my relationship with God was basically worthless. He spiritually helped me connect with God and resolve all my problems. Physically I was growing and becoming a young adult although I was still pretty small compared to the average twelve or thirteen teenager. Physiologically I was becoming a very intellectual thinker. Although sometimes I thought pessimistically, I was thinking more optimistically more often then. Going through all these different experiments in school and in life I had certainly learned a lot. I had learned how to correct myself from my mistakes and create new thinking processes. I learned that when you have a good friend, you should take him/her very seriously and don't take them for granted because you will never find another friend out there just like them. I also learned during this transition that you should truly respect you teachers because they basically have devoted their lives to you to educate you and hopefully help you become the basis of our future. I also learned that I should seriously realize how lucky I am to be alive and have a home to live in and food to survive and a caring loving family to take care of me and help me become who I am.

Making a transition from junior high to high school was a variety of feelings. I had started out to be very excited and exuberant over the summer going to high school. Then a lot of my feeling had changed. I went from happy to depressed. I was being so occupied with homework and so focused with school all the time it just got to overwhelming for me and got to me. Unfortunately on top of all this commotion, just last month my mother's house had burnt down and put my family and me through a very difficult time emotionally, spiritually and physiologically. Fortunately God was kind enough to have my whole family safe and lucky to be alive. This was the most depressing time in my life. Until that day I had never known what it felt like to be completely depressed. I would consider this time a desert time in my life because even though family members I had felt very alone and felt that I had lost everything and had also felt very lost and confused with my relationship with God. It was just too much to handle at one time and my faith with God had been getting farther apart. Thanks for my family and friends they filled me with hope and got me back to normal and got my relationship back with God. Don't get me wrong I wasn't always having depressed times; I was also very lucky and fortunate too. My mother married my step father Charles Walker and changed my spiritual life forever. He helped me connect with God and understand everything I was confused with in my life. He has also been very respectful to my mother and made her very happy which I love to see.

Now being a mature adult I have to act like one too. I have gotten rid of a lot of my childish attitudes. I decided to change my attitude and become a very appropriate gentleman all because of my father sending me to St.Charles Preparatory High School. I changed my life by focusing on school and not letting my social life take over because I need to focus in what really matters in life. I gave up acting like a little child and getting into mischief the entire time making my parents upset.

Becoming a freshman I made it necessary for me to make some considerable goals to achieve. I set a goal saying that I would become a more positive thinker and be more optimistic on everything that I face. At the start of my Freshman year I promised myself that I would try my hardest and achieve the most I can so that I can have a future ahead o f me.

Beginning high school was a total transition and reform for me. My life was changed in so many ways, academically, socially, athletically, emotionally and spiritually. Going into high school I didn't really know what to expect in these areas. At this point, academically I am standing at a pretty consistent average GPA. Although I do wish that I could have a higher one. I feel that I could probably could put little more studying in and take a little more time on doing my homework. I have been doing fairly well in IPC all this year and haven't had much trouble. On the other hand Latin has been a little bit hard for me this year. I have been struggling all year but have still managed to have a passing grade for all the quarters. Social Studies has been a gradual incline trough out the year. I started out very slow and did very poor on the test. As the year moved on I gradually climbed up the ladder and continued to increase my percentage from a 45% at first quarter interim to an 80 % right now. Algebra has been the opposite. I started out great and had and 87 %. But as the year went on it just went downhill. I have been struggling these past two quarters and have been trying to get back together. Religion has been very bumpy this year. In junior high I was getting an A all year. But until this year I didn't know what to expect. I started out pretty well and had a consistent grade until fourth quarter. Studying has been getting tough and very demanding now that it requires more thought and memorization than just common sense. I am thinking positive and giving it my best shot and trying my hardest to raise my grade this whole year. I was doing rather well in the beginning of the year in English. Then as the fourth quarter came along, things turned around and my grade dropped dramatically.

When I my grades get low its no ones fault but mine. Of course, at first I fell depressed and perhaps angry with myself but then I decide the only way to resolve the problem is to continue trying my best and study harder or maybe even change studying techniques.

I came to St.Charles with out having many friends come here. But as the year went on I made a lot of new friends who are polite, funny and easy to talk to. I just like to hang out with my friends and be who I am and don't worry about being a follower, leader or group member. Although sometimes I do feel like a follower and do stuff just to be accepted. I sometimes do stuff that I normally wouldn't do in front of my friends so that I can just have the chance to fit in and get along. I felt like this for the beginning of my relationship with my friends but then realized that they don't care what I do or try to act like them they just accept me for who I am.

I love to get involved in any physical sport because I love a challenge. I mostly like to play basketball in gym and on my free time and play lacrosse at home. I believe that I am perfect in every way that God made me. I don't need to be faster, or bigger, or stronger to excel in a sport you just need to have confidence and believe in yourself. At this point in time I have kind of lost some of my social life only in order to help me focus on school and homework. I still am keeping in touch with my friends and doing things on the weekends with them but not nearly as much as I use to when I was younger. My best friend is currently Pat Kelly at Bishop Watterson and is also trying to focus on school too. We have fun every weekend and go to movies, skateboard and just have simple fun as often as we can. I also always hang out with all my fiends that are girls too on the week ends. Currently I don't have a girlfriend sot hat I can remain focusing on school and have a full dedication to school. All of my friends understand all the problems I go through, but sometimes they just don't take it seriously and understand how I really feel about it. Bu t they also are a great help too when I am in the dumps. Whenever I am down or just simply depressed I can easily be cheer me up by my friends.

It's hard to explain my emotional side. It is on and off and I tend to have mood swings. I sometimes seem to feel that everything is just bad or shouldn't have happened and I seem to think pessimistic. Each day I usually feel good or bad, all depends on how that day turns out. I believe that my mother is what I look forward to seeing everyday after school and the thought of being with her helps me be into a good mood. I also look forward to coming home to my dog Veronica everyday and playing around with her each day after school. Ever since I got a job I started to work on the weekends and not be able to attend church on the weekends. My father then asks me to quit my job so that I can focus on school and so that I can go to church with my family. Now I am going to church every weekend and have gradually had an incline of my faith with God each time I attend church. I believe that God is who he is. He is the Almighty and creator of heaven and earth and we should all appreciate Him for what he has done for us each and every day in our lives. Ever since my mother's house had burnt down I have felt closer to God because I have realized how lucky I am to have my whole family still safe and alive. Even though I lost all of my possession and some that are irreplaceable I still feel that I am lucky to be here on earth thanks to God.

So far in my life I am thankful that my family and I are all safe and unharmed and are doing exceptionally well in life. I am also very happy and thankful that I went to St.Charles because I would of never of met any of the great friends, faculty or staff. Because I made the decision to go to St.Charles I am also lucky to have such generous and caring friend and faculty who donated money to me help me get on with my life and return to the way my life use to be. All of the special and significant people in my life have affected me so greatly and changed my life significantly. They have all been so kind, generous and caring too me. I hope to accomplish to be just like the people at St.Charles and be as caring, loving and generous a them when I get older. I like the fact that I am very funny and can make a lot of people laugh. That's the first thing people point me out for and recognize me for when they know me. Most people like the quality that I can make someone laugh when that aren't felling so great too.

If I could change something about myself it would have to be the gift of academics. I know that I try very hard to achieve high grades and goals, but for some reason I seem to fall short and not make it to where I want to be. I would want to have the quality or characteristic and someone recognize me as being an outstanding academic achiever. Even though I study hard and do my best most the time I still can't achieve the best grades. I would also probably like to not have the fear of making new friends because I have a tendency to not be who I really am by acting to shy or being who I really am. I feel pretty comfortable athletically and feel confident in how good I can do in a sport or activity. I think that I fall short emotionally because I seem to always be upset over everything and get angry for no apparent reason. I wish that I could maybe control my emotions a little better and be happy more of the time. I also feel pretty confident in my relationship with God and am spiritually connected with God just fine. Although sometimes I do have my doubts in God and tend to get angry with him when I really shouldn't be.

I think that any friend needs to be trustworthy, sharing, kind, forgiving, honest and compassionate. I would love to be al these things to my friends and family and in some cases improve in some areas. I also believe that I need to maybe change y attitude on the way I look at things at school and take them seriously so that I can become a true student. I could improve on being a little more encouraging u=instead of putting down my teammates in sports and help them achieve their goals just like I want to. I think that I could maybe find a little more time to pray to Jesus and thank Him for just how much he has given me, my friends and family. I usually don't take part in many community activities and know that I should. I wish that I could get a little more involved with my community and return a favor for what all they given me.

I love to build and create things on my free time. I love to try and invent things or try and improve things that might be a hassle to some people. I also find an interest in fixing things or putting things together. I would love to become a future Architect in my later years after graduating from college and excel in my career. At this point my older sister is studying all types of architecture classes and learning to become an architect for her future architecture. I really look up to her and would love to be just like her after I graduate high school. My mother has also always been a support and encouraged me to excel in something in the field of architecture and become the best person I can. I hope to become the world's greatest architect and have the greatest impact on the world of architecture ever in history. I hope to improve the ways everyone lives and help them to have a home that they can live in. I want to build a house for someone so that they can feel comfortable and relate to the design o f it. Just like the famous American architect Frank Lloyd Wright said once a house is not just a place to live, it's a way to live. When I graduate from college wherever that may be I hope to accomplish the same thought.

After I pass away I want to be remembered as an outgoing and adventurous person who always had fun even when I was depressed. I want o be known as the most creative guy and inspirational person. I want everyone to realize that you don't just have to take life so seriously, you can have fun some time too. Generosity is the most important thing to me. Because so many people have been so generous to me, I wish that when my kids grow up I will focus on telling them that quality and hope they will grow up and do the same. When my life is over and I pass on and am buried I wouldn't bother to have anything on my gravestone except for my name, birth and death date because that all anyone who knew me will need to know in order to remember me.

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The Secular deterioration in terms of trade of developing countries confine them to be imitators and never innovators. Discuss.

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Secular deterioration the deterioration in the (commodity) terms of trade. Raul Prebisch and Hans Singer launched a hypothesis, secular decline in the terms of trade of primary products and primary producing region vis-a-vis manufactures and the industrial North (respectively). During the days of industrial revolution in the West, colonisation of the South led to the colonial pattern of North-South trade. Raw materials and food moved from the colonies and semi-colonies in the South to the industrial centre in the North. Artisan activities declined in the South due to competition from the machine-made goods as a part of the design of the colonial rulers.

Economic historians described this phenomenon as de-industrialisation. Mainstream economists hail this phenomenon as international division of labour according to comparative advantages. It was expected that the fruits of technical progress taking place in the industrial centre of the North would be transmitted to the peripheral agrarian countries constituting the South. This transmission mechanism was thought to be the improvements in the terms of trade of the agrarian region. Under free trade the operation of the so-called classical law of improvements in the terms of trade of primary product vis-à-vis manufactures operate.

Some of the explanations that have been offered for this decline include productivity differentials between countries, asymmetric market structure (where manufacturing industries capture oligopolistic rents relative to competitive firms earning zero economic profits and producing primary commodities) and high income elasticity of demand for manufacturing goods relative to that of primary commodities. One consequence of these findings is that developing countries, to the degree that they export primary commodities and import manufactures, will be subject to a secular deterioration in their net barter terms of trade. The clear policy implication is to diversify exports away from primary commodities or stimulate domestic production of manufactures.

In developing countries this secular deterioration was attributed to differences in the

possibility to capture the benefit spreading out from technical change. In the developing countries wages were said to be fixed at a competitive level as an effect of the high level of unemployment and of weakness of the labour unions. On the contrary, in the developed economies, the structure of products and of the labour markets tend to be more monopolistic, characterised by the existence of large corporation and well-organised labour unions.

While the developed countries productivities improvements were said to be translated into higher wages, in the developing countries labour supply pressure was said to keep wages unchanged, thus leading to lower prices.

With Prebisch's wordsthe great industrial centers not only kept for themselves the benefit of the use of new techniques in their economy, but are in a favourable position to obtain a share of that deriving from technical progress of the periphery. The combination of low income and price elasticities of demand for primary product, along with these different structures of the product and factor markets, were thought to be the keys of this persistent decline. These ideas support the view that developing countries had to develop a strategy that involved industrialisation, and in particular a reduced role of primary exports.

Several authors, notably Prebisch (150) and Singer (150), have argued that there is a secular tendency for the terms of trade for primary commodities to deteriorate over time. The confirmation of such a tendency through historical data is of course problematical. Since such data also include those for years characterized by unusual occurrences, like World Wars and breakdowns of currency regimes (as happened to the Bretton Woods system in 171), which have the effect of suddenly pushing up primary commodity prices, any tendency towards secular deterioration gets obscured by these sudden occasional boosts.

For long stretches of time, both before and after such sudden boosts however, a secular deterioration in the primary commodity terms of trade is clearly discernible. In particular, the fact that these terms of trade have moved against primary commodities over the last couple of decades, precisely when the contemporary phenomenon of globalization is claimed to have manifested itself, is undeniable.

Explanations for such a secular tendency for the terms of trade to move against primary

commodities have invariably focused on the behaviour of goods markets. Many of theses explanations of course, including Prebischs own one, are logically untenable. Prebisch argued that the effects of technological progress, leading to increases in labour productivity, in the manufacturing segment of the world economy do not get passed on in the form of lower prices, while the effects of similar technological progress in the primary commodity segment do; this according to him caused a secular deterioration in the primary commodity terms of trade.

The structure of the export trade of developing countries has, however, undergone a substantial transformation since the early 180s, with a rapid growth in the exports of manufactures, which by the early 10s had come to be the dominant flow of merchandise from developing to developed countries. By 11, for example, manufactures exports to developed countries represented three times the value of non-oil commodities, whereas in 180 exports of commodities had exceeded the value of manufactures exports. Over the past decade, the dominant exchange between developing countries and developed countries has thus become the `horizontal exchange of manufactures for other manufactures. This change in trade structure has led to the extension of the earlier debate on the vertical commodities/manufactures terms of trade to the new issue of the trend, if any, in the manufactures/manufactures terms of trade.

However, this new focus of the debate must not be taken to imply that the traditional concern with the commodities/manufactures terms of trade can now be ignored. This is because the expansion in developing countries exports of manufactures has been confined to relatively few countries. The four Newly-Industrializing Countries (NICs) of East Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan) together with the Asian 4 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand) and China accounted for almost 80 per cent of the increase in the value of manufactures exported by all developing countries, including China, from 180 to 10. This leaves well over one hundred countries dependent, to a greater or lesser extent, on revenue from the export of primary (non-oil) commodities for the bulk of their export earnings. So, for the great majority of developing countries the commodity terms of trade remain a crucial element in their capacity to import essential goods for their economic development.

To say that the secular deterioration in terms of trade of developing countries confine them to be imitators and never innovators is partly true in the sense that the developing countries tend to imitate the developed countries in the terms of products so that

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THE EU

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THE EUROPEAN UNION

Member States

15 democratic States - 65 million citizens - voluntarily joined by a political desire to present a united front to the great challenges of our age Germany, France, Italy, UK, Spain, Belgium, Greece, Netherlands, Portugal, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg and Ireland. UK a member for 0 years.

1 other countries are applying for membership Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta,Poland, Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. Most of these are expected to join by 007, some by 004.

Objectives

• To promote European unity;

• To improve living and working conditions for citizens;

• To foster economic development, balanced trade and fair competition;

• To reduce economic disparities between regions;

• To help developing countries;

• To preserve peace and freedom the EU was originally conceived as the Coal and Steel Community to prevent another world war (coal and steel were crucial to war preparation).

Resources

• Community legislation, applicable in the 15 Member States;

• The budget, financed by the Communitys own resources ( billion euros, £58bn, in 000);

• The administrative and technical staff employed by the Community institutions.

Subsidiarity principle

• A superior authority should only be involved when a goal can not be achieved more effectively at a lower level. of 7

Institutions and bodies

• The EU is now a major political force in many international fora and has a much stronger voice than any of its members, even the UK.

• 40 per cent of UK legislation originates from the EU process. (This rises to 80% for Environmental legislation). Regulations go straight to local authorities/agencies.

• Legislation is proposed by the Commission and sent to the Council and the European Parliament, both of which have to pass the legislation if it is to be enacted. The Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions will normally give their opinions to the Commission, the Council and the European Parliament before legislation is passed.

• Whilst there are 11 languages currently spoken in the EU, English has become the lingua franca.

• Bottom line, the EU works.

The European Commission

• The College of Commissioners is composed of 0 independent members, proposes Community legislation, monitors compliance with legislation and with the Treaties, and administers common policies. They have to agree to any amendments by the Council of Ministers or European Parliament.

• Romani Prodi, president; Neil Kinnock, vice-president, administrative reform; Chris Patten, external relations; Loyola de Palacio, transport & energy and 16 other Commissioners meet on a weekly basis.

They have real and well informed discussions.

• The College is very political, but not party political. The rest of the staff are similar to any other civil service.

• At present, 0 Commissioners are appointed by a common agreement of member states (

Commissioners for each of the 5 larger states and 1 Commissioner for each of the other states.

• Commission now invested by the European Parliament.

• 4 Directorates-General (Departments in UK speak). Economic and financial affairs; Enterprise; Competition; Employment & social affairs; Agriculture; Transport & energy; Environment; Research; Information; Fisheries; Internal market; Regional policies; Tax system and customs union; Education & culture; Health & consumer policies; Justice & internal affairs; External relations; Commercial policy; Development; Enlargement; Common service on external relations; Personnel & administration; Budget; and Financial Control.

• Grown from 5,000 staff/0,000 transactions in 180 to 8,000 staff & contractors/600,000 transactions today. Currently being re-organised by Neil Kinnock to reflect today's needs. Up till now the organisation and its practices were based on the much smaller organisation. See

http//europa.eu.int/comm/governance/white_paper/index_en.htm for proposals to reform the EU.

• Corruption really only a minor issue and no more prevalent than in any other government. Institutional reform, held back by other priorities and vested interests, now being pushed through by Neil Kinnock.

Some reforms will require changes to the EU treaties and to Belgian employment law before they can be completed.

• Forward looking - DG Environment developed a 10 year vision, which is used to formulate future proposals for legislation. Use incentives, not just strictures.

• DTI view is the they want to promote 50% and resist the other 50%.

• See http//europa.eu.int for further information and links to all of the EU institutions.

The Council of Ministers (or Council of European Union)

• The Council, composed of 15 members (one minister from each government), takes decisions and adopts Community legislation. Its membership depends on the subject under consideration (it may be made up of the 15 Ministers for Foreign Affairs, Agriculture, Transport, Finance, etc.).

• The European Council is part of this and comprises The Heads of State and Government and their Foreign Ministers, together with the President of the European Commission. Its task is to boost the construction of Europe at the highest level, to resolve blockages, and to define the general guidelines for economic and political cooperation in Europe. It is the major organ for political impulse.

• Presidency rotates among the member states every six months (001/ Belgium, 00/1 Spain, 00/ Denmark).

• Simple majority required in very limited circumstances. of 7

• Qualified majority required for a wide range of subjects. 6 out of 87 votes required Germany, France, Italy & UK 10 votes each; Spain 8 votes; Belgium, Greece, Netherlands & Portugal 5 votes each;Austria & Sweden 4 votes each; Denmark, Finland & Ireland votes each; and Luxembourg votes.

• Unanimity is required for sensitive subjects of a diplomatic, political or social nature.

• The Council must be unanimous in order to amend a Commission proposal.

• Legislation will only be adopted if also agreed to by the European Parliament.

• Council meetings are held in camera. Object is not to make enemies. Ministers make the political points, then the President and officials retire to a room and try to build consensus.

• COREPER is the permanent representatives committee. It is composed of the permanent

representatives of each member. Each delegation is led by an ambassador who takes part in the work of COREPER on matters of a political nature or a deputy for matters of a technical nature.

• COREPER prepares the Council decision.

• Proposed legislation is reviewed by Committees in the House of Commons and the House of Lords (their analysis is highly regarded). But with about 1,500 proposals each year, it is difficult for them to review all proposals in detail.

• UK Departments review all proposals in detail and provide detailed briefings to UK ministers, officials and MEPs (the UK briefings are reported to be the best in Europe). The UK position is coordinated by the Cabinet Office, who consider tactics to be everything. The UK office is known as UKREP and has 140 staff in Brussels. Their view is that the name of the game is building the broadest possibleconsensus.

• What a minister says in Brussels (usually very supportive), can be very different to what he/she says in the UK (often very negative).

• The Secretariat of The Council of Ministers has ,700 staff working in 10 Directorates General. Its Secretary General, also known as the High Representative, is Javier Solana.

• See also http//ue.eu.int

• The Council of Ministers (or Council of European Union) should not be confused with the Council of Europe, which is based in Strasbourg, and has 4 European countries as its members. See www.coe.int for further information.

The European Parliament

• The European Parliament, directly elected by universal suffrage, represents the peoples of the Community. It takes part in the lawmaking and budgetary processes and has limited, but increasing, powers of control. Most legislation has to be approved by both the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers. The EP is not responsible for the cost of its decisions.

• It has 66 MEPs, including 87 from the UK. They are all elected by proportional legislation.

• In the UK, they are elected on a regional basis. The MEPs for the South-East region are Nirj Deva (Con), James Elles (Con), Nigel Farage (UK Ind), Daniel Hannan (Con), Chris Huhne (LibDem), Caroline Lucas (Green), Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne (LibDem), Roy Perry (Con), James Provan (Con), Peter Skinner (Lab) and Mark Watts (Lab). Full details of the UK MEPs can be found on www.europarl.org.uk.

• There are currently 8 parties in the European Parliament. They are Group of the European People's Party (Conservatives - MEPs); Group of the European Socialist Party (Labour - 181); European Liberal Democrat and Reforms Party (5); Green Group/Free European Alliance (46); Group of the European United Left/Nordic Green Left (4); Union for Europe of Nations (0); Technical Group of Independent Deputies (1); European Group for Democracies and Differences (16); plus 8 non-attached MEPs. The political groups do not have a constituency role.

• All work is organised through committees which report back to the EP for final discussion and voting.

• The politicians are surprisingly accessible, open to discussion, seeking information. In meetings, and in the corridors of the Parliament, narrow nationalism and intolerance are not evident. The MEP's view is that they can get on with the work and that they do genuinely make a difference. MEPs must master their brief and know their colleagues if they are to be successful.

• The EP's responsibilities and powers have been widened. In 1, it censured the then Commission and all 0 Commissioners had to resign. The defeat of the Takeover Directive, due to the concerted action of the German MEP's, was a wake up call to the EU.

• See www.europarl.eu.int for further information.

4 of 7

The Economic and Social Committee

• Alongside these institutions, the Economic and Social Committee, a consultative body, involves representatives of employers, trade unions and other groups in the process of drafting Community legislation.

• There are members, including 4 from the UK, appointed for four years. This is part-time work (0-5 days/year), done in addition to their normal job they are there because of their job.

• They are organised in three groups Group 1 Employers; Group Workers; and Group Various Interests (farmers, craftsmen, dealers, professional activities, etc.).

• ECOSOC has to be consulted by the Commission, Council and the EP on the following issues Agriculture policy; Free movement of workers; Right of establishment; Freedom to provide services; Transport; Internal market; Social policy; European social fund; Vocational training; Research and technological training; and Environment.

• Whilst the Commission, Council and EP do not have to accept ECOSOC's advice, it is part of the EU method of consensus building. This contrasts with the UK approach of I win, you lose, where the majority party normally gets its way, regardless of what the other parties and the majority of the population think. But there is a question on how beneficial this consultation is.

• In 000, ECOSOC issued 154 opinions upon consultation by the Council and Commission; 44 opinions on its own initiative; and 5 information reports.

• See www.esc.eu.int for further information.

The Committee of the Regions

• Another body ancillary to the Commission, Council and the European Parliament, the Committee of the Regions, introduces representation for regional and local bodies in the Community institutional system and has advisory functions.

• There are also members, including 4 from the UK, appointed for four years. This is again parttime work (0-5 days/year), done in addition to their normal job they are there because of their job.

• They are organised into 8 Committees.

• The COR has to be consulted by the Commission, Council and the EP on the following issues Education; Culture; Public health; the Regional Development Fund; Implementation of the trans-European networks; and the Framework agreements for the structural funds

• There is a question as to whether the COR has influenced any proposals. The view of one MEP was that the COR should lobby the EP in the same way as everyone else if the MEP's are used to working this way, it may be the right thing to do.

• See www.cor.eu.int for further information.

The European Investment Bank

• The role of the European Investment Bank is to contribute on a financial level to the balanced development of the Community.

• It can currently lend up to Euro 50 billion to eligible projects. This money is obtained from the capital markets, using its AAA rating, supported by the commitment of its members.

• Eligible projects are in areas that the EU want to develop and would not otherwise happen or not happen quickly enough. Examples of such projects are Glasgow, where the council borrowed money from the EIB in order to install IT throughout its schools; major infrastructure links; renewable energy projects (the EU goal is 10%, with the market only expected to provide 5%).

• See www.eib.org for further information.

• The EIB should not be confused with the European Central Bank, which is based in Frankfurt, and is responsible for the Euro and setting interest rates for its participating countries. See www.ecb.int for further information.

The Court of Auditors

• The Court of Auditors monitors the implementation of the Community budget.

5 of 7

• 15 Judges appointed for six years, by Council of Ministers in consultation with the European Parliament. John Wiggins appointed from UK

• Independent, acting supremely, it looks after the external control of European public expenditure and gives opinions on the financial and budgetary plans of the EU.

• It has about 500 staff and is organised into four audit groups. All the Judges, except their President, are members of one or more audit groups.

• Draft reports and opinions are prepared by the groups and submitted to the 15 Judges for approval.

• See www.eca.eu.int for further information.

The Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance

• The Court of Justice, based from the outset in Luxembourg, together with the Court of First Instance, ensures that the law is observed in the process of Community integration.

• The Court of First Instance is the lower court. It has 15 Judges (Judge Nic Forwood from the UK) appointed for six years. It operates through 5 Chambers of to 5 Judges, although all 15 can meet for important cases.

• It can deal with cases brought by individuals or non-state organisations. Appeals on points of law (but not fact) can be made to the Court of Justice.

• The Court of Justice has 15 Judges (Judge David Edward from the UK) assisted by Advocates-General. They are appointed for six years.

• Advocates-General (not found in the UK legal system) make reasoned submissions in open Court, with complete impartiality and independence, on cases brought before the Court of Justice, in order to assist the Court in the performance of the task assigned to it.

• See www.curia.eu.int for further information.

Rapporteurs

• A system of Rapporteurs and shadow rapporteurs is used widely in the EU, particularly in the EP.

Rapporteurs are appointed by the various committees and courts to review a proposal, obtain any necessary advice, and prepare a draft for the committee or court to review.

• Where a proposal affects more than one committee, the rapporteurs will liaise with each other.

Implementation of legislation

• Regulations are compulsory. They establish the end to be achieved and how to do it. The regulation is directly applicable in each state, simultaneously and uniformly.

• Directives bind each state as to the result to be achieved, but leaves the national authority to decide the form and the means. In practice, the maneuvering margin for each state is minimal.

• Decisions are addressed to a precisely defined individual, entity or member state.

• Recommendations and opinions are not binding, but useful guidance of national behavior and legislation.

• Once legislation has been passed by the EU, it is then generally passed to the member countries to implement. The members normally have several years to complete the implementation.

• It is at this stage that local officials can add interpretations that cause ridicule. One example was a UK official who was also a nature enthusiast. He modified the EU proposal in its UK drafting, with the consequence that a golf club had to flood its bunkers twice a year, in order to protect a species of grass the official was concerned about.

• National ministers undoubtedly take advantage of EU legislation to implement legislation they believe in, but publicly blame on the EU.

Lobbying

• This needs to be done at the start of the legislative process, if it is to be effective. It must also be focused and concise. A fax just before a vote is far too late and there is no time to read generic information.

• Send any proposed amendments electronically, preferably in before and after versions this really will be appreciated. 6 of 7

• Any proposal should be seen to address the big picture. Get cross-border support if possible.

The EUs view of Britain

• Surprisingly good at various levels!

• The Commissioners are political animals and have a great interest in our parliament and political processes. Many have studied here and have a soft spot for the UK.

• The Commission as a whole, and perhaps the Council too, likes us. There is a feeling that if they get Britain on board for a particular proposal then it is more likely to succeed and be more complete. There was also an intellectual challenge to bring the UK round to an acceptable common position.

• There is some sympathy for the UKs position on the Euro. But we must join at some point. It is realised that with the UK's anti-Euro press and many sceptical politicians, the UK cant jump in yet. On the other hand, if we dont decide relatively soon ( to years?), the goodwill may evaporate.

• British civil servants are highly regarded for the quick analysis of issues presented at meetings, and for briefings sent to the UK MEPs, etc - these are sought by other nationals.

The Press

• Whilst there is generally reasonable reporting of the EU throughout its member states, the UK xenophobic press is unique. It lacks coverage and has a negative attitude to the EU. None of the UK tabloids have a full time correspondent in Brussels. This is ridiculous, given that 40% of UK legislation originates here.

• It is good to have criticism, but the UK press is extreme. Whereas our MEPs, etc can expect to be interviewed by the press of other members periodically, the UK press are normally not interested and only become interested if they can report the EU in a negative way. When asbestos was found in one of the EU offices, one tabloid headline the next day was EU to blow up Brussels HQ. This was nonsense and pure sensationalism. The building is still there and is due to re-open shortly, with the asbestos removed.

• The exception to this is the FT, which is now a paper of note through-out Europe, read by most decision makers. If the Commission wants to progress something, they will often leak it to the FT. The Independent also has a reasonable reporting of EU issues.

• The UK regional press appears to have little interest in the EU, unless it is of direct relevance to its readership area.

Electoral attitudes

• The apathy shown by the UK and other electorates is a problem for the future.

• It may be that the affluence of the electorate leaves them uninterested. It may be that the press, particularly in the UK, disengages them from the political process. It may be that the management of the political messages, the spin-doctoring, disengages them from the political process.

• If the electorates are content to leave the politicians to get on with the job, it is sad but not a problem. If, on the other hand, this leads to violent activism by small minorities, as recently seen in the petrol price protests last year and the anti-capitalism protests this year, it becomes a problem that both the politicians and the press should think about.

• Whilst the people in the EU appear to want to get their message across, they are unclear as how to do it. It is not always in the member country government's interest to give the EU credit (they like to take credit for the good bits & blame the EU for the difficult bits).

• Even when there is a clear message to deliver (and there are briefings every day in Brussels), these have limited benefit if the press is unwilling to report on them and/or only reports the negative side of every thing.

• If the EU is about consensus building, then it would seem that the EU system may give the electorate a more responsive result than the UK model. But it can be slower and involve a lot of horse trading.

• A problem for the EU is the sheer size of size of a constituency. How do you represent 600,000 people? The superiority of the EU system to Westminster may be illusory. It will always be difficult for 7 of 7 the EU to be close to its citizens and the EU does sometimes get out of step with the majority view. Perhaps the key is the politicians and civil servants if they are motivated to move the EU/UK forward, then either system will probably produce a good result. If they are motivated to move themselves forward regardless of moving the EU/UK forward, then neither system will produce a good result.

ECONOMIC AND MONETARY UNION

Economic and monetary union is a logical accompaniment to the single market and a major political milestone on the road to a united Europe. Uniting currencies which to the countries of Europe were the symbols and instruments of their sovereignty for several centuries is a venture which has neither a precedent in our history since the Roman Empire, nor any equivalent elsewhere in the world. A single European currency should come into circulation on 1 January 1, replacing national currencies as from 1 January 00, and helping to make the man in the street more aware of belonging to a new entity.

The emergence of the single European currency is the result of lengthy, patient development.

In 170 the Werner Report came out in favour of creating an economic and monetary union in three stages over a period of ten years. But the political will to press ahead with this union was weakened by the first oil crisis and the project ran out of steam.

However, a European exchange-rate system, popularly known as the snake, was introduced in 17. In 174 the Council adopted a Decision designed to bring about a high degree of convergence between national economies and a Directive on stability, growth and full employment. However, growing economic instability gradually eroded the foundations of the system and the French franc, sterling and the Italian lira left the snake.

THE EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM

The EMS has three main components. On 6 and 7 July 178, at the Bremen European Council, the Heads of State and Government decided to establish the European Monetary System (EMS), which came into force on 1 March 17.

The EMS has created a zone of monetary stability in Europe, encouraging growth and investment.

·The ECU This is seen as the key element in the system. It is a basket of the currencies of the Member States.

·The exchange-rate and intervention mechanisms Each currency has a central exchange rate linked to the ECU. This is used to determine central rates for each pair of currencies. Until August 1 bilateral exchange rates were allowed to fluctuate within a band of .5%, or up to 6% in exceptional cases, around the central rate. Since then the band has been increased to 15% following serious upsets on the currency markets.

·The credit mechanisms In the event of bilateral exchange rates approaching the 15% threshold, central banks have unlimited liability to intervene to ensure that the threshold is not crossed.

The EMS has succeeded in creating a zone of increasing monetary stability. But it has still to achieve its true potential. Several currencies remain outside the exchange-rate mechanism or are allowed to fluctuate within wider bands. Insufficient convergence of national budgetary policies has created tensions, and some competitive devaluations have threatened the unity of the single market.

The last lap on the road to EMU

In order to remove the non-tariff barriers to the free movement of goods, capital, services and persons and complete the single market, the single currently quickly seemed to be a necessity.

On the basis of the report submitted by the Commission President, Jacques Delors, in June 18, the Madrid European Council defined the objectives in broad terms the Community was to embark on a process comprising several stages, the first of which was to begin on 1 July 10, and culminating in the introduction of a single currency. Monetary and economic progress would go hand in hand.

During the first stage the Member States would draw up convergence programmes designed to promote improvements in and convergence of economic performance, thereby making it possible to establish fixed exchange rates.

The Treaty of Maastricht

The Treaty signed in Maastricht on 7 February 1 makes progress towards a single currency irreversible, by splitting the timetable of achievements into three stages.

The criteria for going on to the third stage have been set as follows

·price stability the rate of inflation may not exceed the average rates of inflation of the three Member States with the lowest inflation by more than 1.5%;

·interest rates long-term interest rates shall not vary by more than % in relation to the average interest rates of the three Member States with the lowest interest rates;

·deficits national budget deficits must be close to or below % of the GNP;

·debt public debt may exceed 60% of GNP only if the trend is declining towards this level;

·exchange rate stability a national currency shall not have been devalued during the two previous years and must have remained within the EMS .5% margin of fluctuation.

Stage II of economic and monetary union began on 1 January 14. It is a transitional stage during which a determined effort will be made to achieve economic convergence. A European Monetary Institute (EMI) was set up in Frankfurt to strengthen the coordination of Member States monetary policies, promote the use of the ECU and prepare the ground for the creation of a European Central Bank in Stage III.

The Madrid European Council on 15 and 16 December 15 christened the future European currency the Euro and adopted the technical procedure for creating it.

Stage III will begin on 1 January 1. In May 18 the Member States Finance Ministers will decide, on the basis of reports from the Commission and the EMI, which Member States meet the conditions for adoption of a single currency. The Commission considers that as regards the economic forecasts of the future, a majority of Member States will be able to fulfil the conditions set for the Euro by 1 January 1. The Heads of State and Government meeting within the Council will confirm by qualified majority, after consulting the European Parliament, which Member States fulfil the conditions necessary for the single currency to be adopted.

At the beginning of Stage III a European Central Bank will be set up and the exchange rates between the participating currencies will be fixed once and for all. The Bank will be independent of national governments and will manage the monetary policies of all the Member States joining the single currency. Member States outside the currency union will join as soon as their economic performance permits, or when they take the political decision.

The single currency, the ECU, must be introduced on 1 January 1 for the administrations and the banks. On 1 January 00 at the latest, the Euro coins and notes must be in circulation. The common faces of the coins were officially introduced at the Amsterdam European Council. Technical discussions considered the opinion of the partially sighted and consumers as to their shape and composition.

On 1 July 00, the Euro will replace national currencies in the Member States joining the single currency. Between these two dates, prices will be displayed both in ECUs and in the national currency to help European consumers familiarise themselves gradually with the new currency.

Under protocols to the Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark reserve the right to opt out of Stage III even if they meet the economic performance criteria. Following a referendum Denmark stated that it did not intend to take part. Sweden also made clear its reservations.

In order to complete the provisions of the Maastricht Treaty, the European Council meeting on 17 June 17 in Amsterdam adopted two important resolutions

·the first one, known as the stability and growth pact, commits the Member States to keep to their budgets. This discipline will be guaranteed by multilateral supervision and a ban on excessive deficits.

·the other resolution concerns growth. It indicates whether the Member States and the Commission are firmly committed to providing the impetus for keeping jobs at the forefront of the Unions political concerns.

In the resolution on the coordination of the economic policies during Stage III of the EMU, which the European Council adopted in Luxembourg on 1 December 17, it took an important decision by stipulating that the Ministers of the Member States joining the EMU may meet together informally to discuss questions arising from the specific responsibilities they share under the single currency. The Heads of Government of the Fifteen thus opened the door to a process of strengthening joint membership, which could bring those countries which adopted the Euro in their economic, budget, social and tax policies even closer together, beyond monetary union itself.

The introduction of a single currency by the end of the century is the European Unions most ambitious goal yet. There are bound to be setbacks along the way which will test the political will of the Member States involved. The crucial question of public opinions acceptance of an innovation which directly affects the daily life of every citizen will also decide the success of the Euro.

The Timetable of the Euro 10 December 11 Treaty on the European Union signed ·decision made to set up a monetary union and adopt five convergence criteria 1er January 14 second stage of the EMU (transitional period) ·EMI set up in Frankfurt; ·procedures strengthened for coordinating European economic policies; ·excessive deficits fought and policy for economic convergence of the Member States; ·independence of national central banks. 16 December 15 Madrid European Council ·the name Euro adopted; ·the technical procedure for introducing the Euro and the timetable for going over to the single currency established. 14 December 16 Dublin European Council ·pact on budget stability and growth adopted ·the Euro acquires legal status. 16 June 17 Amsterdam European Council ·treaty on stability and growth confirmed; ·regulations adopted on the legal status of the Euro; ·EMS First Round for countries not involved in the single currency resolved; ·design of the coins chosen. 1 December 17 Luxembourg European Council ·coordination of economic policies during the third stage of the EMU (multilateral supervision) and Art. 10 and 10b of the Treaty resolved (exchange rate policy and the Communitys representation at international level) 1 and May 18 the European Council defines the list of countries joining the single currency based on the convergence criteria; ·the European Parliament is consulted; ·irreversible bilateral exchange rates set. In 18 European Central Bank (ECB) established, ·Its executive committee appointed; ·Production of coins and notes started.1 January 1 ·third stage of the EMU; the Euro becomes a currency in its own right; ·banks and businesses transfer to the Euro. 1 January 00 the Euro is introduced; coins and notes go into circulation. 1 July 00 at the latest the status of national coins and notes as legal currency is abolished.

Please note that this sample paper on THE EU is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on THE EU, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on THE EU will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

Order your authentic assignment from and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!