Comment On What View Of Indian Culture Is Portrayed In Amrita Pritam's Story: " A Stench Of Kerosene", Giving A Personal Response.

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A Stench of Kerosene is a story written by Amrita Pritam, and is about Indian culture. It focuses on the marriage between the two central characters, Manak and Guleri, and the way in which their relationship is affected by this culture. One of the key- points in this short story, is the difference between Eastern (as in the story) and Western marriage customs and views towards life in general. All of these factors are important in deciding on what view of Indian culture Amrita Pritam has portrayed.

Firstly, I shall examine the view of village life that is given in the story. This aspect is a part of the cultural setting and makes the story and the view in which it is told from, very distinctive. The role of men in this story is told as being primarily in manual labour, in fields and to run the family business. The role of the female however, and the mother inparticular, is the key role to examine. We find out that this is very matriarchal orientated society, and the majority of importance in the household is with the mother. The mother is a power-figure and has dominant control of the home and the whole family in general. This makes the story distinctive as the oldest male would usually be the highest figure in a household, but here the oldest female is portrayed as the main leader of the house. I am led to believe therefore, that Pritam has taken a very empowering view of women in society, not just because of the position of the mother in the family, but also because of the way in which Pritam demonstrates the mother's power. Pritam is leaning almost towards a feminist view, and may also be portraying the society either as very primitive, or highly advanced, it could go both ways. In general, Pritam's view of Indian culture in the village is very distinctive and gives the story added cultural depth.

Courtship and marriage customs is another topic, which Pritam has taken as a central theme to her story. Pritam tells us that there is not always courtship when two people meet. For example, when Manak wanted to marry Guleri he had to ask her father first, in order to 'settle the bride price'. This was what was expected of a young man. This gives conflicting views of females. Pritam portrays the mother as being the respected and powerful figure in a family, and then she also portrays women as being objects to be sold. There must, therefore be a heavy reliance on women becoming mothers in this society. Once both parties had agreed the price, the marriage customs are still dissimilar to Western culture. The bride has to move to the husband's village and home, and act as an 'adopted daughter in-law' of her husband's parents. Usually after marriage, the bride has to be cut off from her family and her old life. This is typical of Indian marriage customs in the way that women are treated as objects to be exchanged for money and used for social betterment. Pritam takes a stern view of marriage customs and is very frank in describing the relative brutality of the nature of marriage.

Following on from the previous section, relationships between husbands and wives is also another key topic in Pritam's study of Indian culture. We see that Manak is deeply in love with Guleri and he displays his affection, somewhat peculiarly, by begging Guleri not to go to the fair, as he is so strongly against his second marriage. He doesn't replace Guleri and show's no true affection towards his new wife, but is made to look like a deceitful and weak- minded man because of his mothers treasonous behaviour towards Guleri. This is not unusual for this culture as having an heir is a very important part of this society. In essence, a generation of a family only exists to preserve the next generation, to continue the families' role in society. The actions of Manak's mother, is a microcosm of Indian society and attitudes towards marriage. In this society, some marriages are seen as formalities, and even without love, they exist I am not his wife, just someone he happened to marry. The young wife is often viewed therefore, as having very little or no say in the running of a household. Pritam has a very harsh or callous view of marriage, and portrays it as being something that is very easily broken, and often is. However, we also get the idea that Pritam does understand the morals, ethics and sanctity of marriage, despite her heartless portrayal of it.

Similar to the last section, relationships between mothers and sons is also a central issue. It is a parallel theme along with Manak and Guleri's relationship. As I have said before, this society is very matriarchal and the mother is the power figure in a home. Manak demonstrates the great respect he has for his mother by saying in obedience of custom and my mother. Manak's mother takes control of his marriage against Manak's will, but he does not complain. She dismisses Manak's wants and feelings and acts to gain for herself. His mother is very demanding and Manak and the reader are led to believe that she is more of a controlling, masculine figure than a woman. Because she is not given a name, Pritam has dehumanised her. The mother's views of marriage are reflective of Pritam's as she is dismissive and callous towards the custom and basic moral. Pritam portrays these relationships between mothers and sons to be full of deep respect, but mainly about control and empowerment on the mother's part.

In my opinion, Pritam has portrayed this society as she would expect it to be. This may be based on experience, personal or through a family member, or maybe on her own knowledge of her culture. She makes a bold statement about important issues, which she feels strongly about, and maybe disagrees with certain aspects of this society and way of living. She addresses taboo's such as death, adultery and infertility comfortably and links them in to the story structure. However this story is viewed, it is certainly a tribute, to a culture separate perhaps to the one she lives in, and an important literary tradition. She sees herself as the voice of the nation and in a sense she has written an autobiography of the nation, including all of the distinguishing points of the culture, and all the points she wishes to protest against.

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EXAMINE THE CORE ELEMENTS OF LIBERALISM AND DISCUSS THE CONSERVATIVE CRITICISMS OF LIBERALISM.

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In order to examine the core elements of liberalism and discuss the conservative criticisms of liberalism I must address the key topics of the essay. I need to know what exactly being a liberal or conservative is all about and therefore must examine their political ideologies and history. I will also address their main goals, beliefs, values and key thinkers and the differences between the two. Firstly, I must establish what exactly is a political ideology.

John Rawls and Robert Nozik were the first people to sit down and investigate political theories. They came to the conclusion that they seek to analyse and explain the world in terms of moral values and philosophical beliefs. Therefore, an ideology is a fluid set of ideas which provide basis for some kind of political action. They contain both descriptive and normative ideas. They offer an account of how society works, a vision of the desired future and an outline of how this political change should be brought about i.e. it is action orientated.

In Heywood's introduction to political ideologies (1 MacMillan) he says that Karl Marx uses ideology in a negative sense. He believes that ideological ideas were false and that they have distorted reality. Liberal writers like Popper and Bell use ideology in the negative sense also. They regard it as a closed system of political thought. Seligers definition sees it as comprehensive. He sees ideologies as a set of ideas which provide basis for some kind of political action.

Ideologies address a broad range of themes and often contain several rival traditions. For example Liberalism is divided into Classical and Modern. Socialism is divided into Marxism and Social Democracy and Conservatism is divided into New Right and Traditional Conservative. Each is being constantly revised but they all possess a characteristic set of ideas and beliefs. Political ideologies are therefore traditions of thought which have changed and developed in history as a result of several arguments and debates.

LIBERALISM

Liberalism is an attitude, philosophy or movement that has as it's basic concern the development of personal freedom and social progress. It is in effect, the ideology of the industrialised west. Social change is conceived of as gradual, flexible, adaptive and seen as fundamental and based on new principles of authority. It's main values are freedom of speech and movement, liberty, autonomy and choice.

To be Liberal was the term used to refer to a class of free men during the fourteenth century. Liberal ideas were the result of the breakdown of feudalism in Europe and the growth of a capitalist society in it's place. The middle class had conflicted interests with the monarchs and they challenged their power. Liberal thinking was hostile to the prerogatives of kings, aristocrats and the church. The liberals sought to reform and had radical ideas. Liberals advocated industrialisation and market economic order free from Government interference i.e. free trade with other countries and the pursuit of profits. This idea was developed by economist John Maynard Keynes and became known as laissez-faire capitalism. After the french revolution liberalism shed some of it's reliance on rationalism and began to base itself on utilitarianism. A link was thus forged between early revolutionary individualism and a new idealistic concern for the interests of society.

Between the mid-seventeenth centuries the liberals fought chiefly against oppression and misuses of power. They emphasised the needs of the free individual and it was at this time that we saw the growth of the natural rights theories i.e. life, liberty and justice.

Areopagita, one of the classics of liberal thinking was also produced in the seventeenth century. It was a treatise written by John Milton in which he advocated the freedom of thought and expression. John Locke was another influential liberal. He was in fact, one of the first thinkers to formulate a comprehensive liberal philosophy. He argued for sovereignty, the right of rebellion against oppression and toleration of the religious minorities. According to Locke the state exists to serve its citizens and to guarantee life, liberty and property under a constitution.

Liberalism is divided into two categories CLASSICAL and MODERN

Classical liberalism is also known as nineteenth century liberalism. It developed during the transition feudalism to capitalism. It's belief is in negative freedom i.e. the absence of external constraints upon the individual. The natural rights, utilitarianism, social Darwinism and economic liberalism all make up the classical liberalism basics. This deep faith in the free market and the belief that the economy works best when left alone by the government is clear from the words of Thomas Jefferson The government is best which governs least. However, the state is seen as a necessary evil (Tom Paine). In other words, the classical liberals accept that the state has to interfere with society to maintain law and order. They are keen for minimal state interference as they believe that it limits citizens freedom.

The laissez-faire doctrine, developed by Adam Smith, is another aspect of the classical liberalism. Laissez-faire capitalism is seen as guaranteeing prosperity and the natural rights.

MODERN Liberalism is a more sympathetic attitude toward state intervention. It came about in the late1800's and twentieth century when political and economic thinking among the liberals began to change. They began to support the idea that the government can best promote individual dignity and freedom through intervention in the economy and by establishing a state concerned about the welfare of its people. Modern liberals abandoned their beliefs in laissez-faire capitalism. J.M. Keynes insight that prosperity could only be maintained through a system of managed capitalism with economic responsibility being placed in the hands of the state helped this come about. However, their support for government interference has always been conditional. With the rise of the welfare state the new liberals also looked to the government to correct some of the ills believed to be caused by capitalism. They favoured taxation, social security, safety and health laws, consumer protection etc.. However, today liberalism is moving to the right of the political spectrum and moving away from modern liberal ideas.

There are several core elements of liberalism. There is a strong belief in the rational human being and autonomy the ability to have an environment where you can self-direct. The liberal ideology centres around the natural rights of life, liberty and property and it is the governments responsibility to respect and protect these rights. However, the core principle of liberalism is individualism. Here the human individual is the dominant and important element. Humans are seen as unique individuals first, each with separate morals etc.. The liberal goal here is to produce a society in which they can develop to their full potential. The individual is not accountable to society for his actions in so far as these concern the interests of no person but himself J.S. Mills pointing out that individual freedom is given limited priority over authority. However liberals do advocate freedom under the law where it is recognised the one persons liberty may be a threat to another persons, but the law can only become involved if the individual has harmed another human. The only purpose for which power can be exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. (J.S. Mill on Liberty). Through the concept of reason individuals are encouraged to resolve their differences through debate or argument rather than war. Progress is the key issue here.

Liberals believe that all human beings are born equal morally. They favour equality of opportunity and hold the opinion that toleration is a guarantee of an individual's liberty. Toleration involves being willing to allow others to think, speak and act as they wish even if it is difficult to do so. They also have a strong belief in meritocracy i.e. the principle that rewards and positions should be distributed on the basis of ability. They find it difficult to understand the idea of irreconcilable conflict, believing in a harmony between rival views. The government is seen as a guarantee to order and stability in society but power tends to corrupt (Lord Acton) and therefore the liberals believe in limited government and in a written constitution defining the relationship between the state and the individual. (Heywood-Politics MacMillan 17).

CONSERVATISM

Conservatism A general state of mind that is adverse to rapid change and innovation and strives for balance and order while avoiding extremes. In the political sense, conservatism means a belief in the importance of maintaining established values and institutions.

Conservatives feel that rapid change is likely to bring about more ills than benefits, especially when it attacks the ways of life that have developed over a long period of time. They are pessimistic about the changes of improving people's behaviour through social change and are often sceptical of popular democracy and what they see as an excess of personal freedom. Conservatism is distinct from reaction, however, whereas conservatives seek to prevent the erosion of important values and institutions they do not (like reactionaries) want to return to the Good old days of the past.

Conservatives usually favour traditional religion, even though they themselves may be non-believers and in capitalist countries they tend to be pro-business and anti-government. However, in communist societies they are likely to favour agrarian policies and oppose industrialisation, showing again their belief in maintaining established institutions, that tradition equals security.

The conservative political creed roots trace back to the late eighteenth century as a reaction against the great enlightenment. They believed in faith over reason. The conservatives stood in defence of social traditions. Tradition was believed to stand over free enquiry as was hierarchy over equality.

Conservatism received its classic formulation in the works of Dublin born UK statesman Edmund Burke. This type of conservatism was more flexible and cautious than the form which had emerged in continental Europe. Burke viewed society as a whole with individuals performing various roles and functions. Each individual was said to have a social obligation. In this society the wealthy and educated individuals would become leaders which is the complete opposite to the liberal principle of meritocracy. The conservatives believe that a community is held together by customs and traditions, where only gradual and accepted changes can be made. Burke and the conservatives criticised the liberal principles of equality, popular representation and popular sovereignty. They also disagreed with the notion of universal franchise and majority rule one of the core elements of liberalism. Their ideology centred around the belief in the supremacy of the law above the natural rights. This was perhaps one of the key differences between liberalism and conservatism. They strongly disagreed with the liberal ideology of individual freedom being given priority over authority.

The core elements of conservatism are quite the opposite of those of the liberals. The conservatives believe in maintaining established customs and institutions (tradition). They place their faith in experience, history and pragmatism i.e. action should be shaped by practical goals and circumstances. Organicism is the belief that shared values and cultures are vital to maintain the community's stability. Society is seen as a whole with individuals providing unique tasks and roles (Burke's theory).

Authority is another core element of conservatism. It is bel;ieved that those in authority provide leadership, guidance and support for those who lack the ability to act wisely. Before we can re-mould society intelligently,, we must understand it's functioning we must realise that, even when we believe that we understand it, we may be mistaken. What we must learn to understand is that human civilisation has a life of it's own. That all our efforts to improve things must operate with a working whole which we cannot entirely control……. F Hayek. 160 The Constitution of Liberty.

It has become apparent throughout my essay that the liberal and conservative ideologies are in fact, very different. Conservative criticisms of liberalism are therefore inevitable.

Where liberals advocate industrialisation and a market economy free from state interference, the conservatives believe in the welfare state.

Classical liberalism believes that the economy works best with minimal state interference. Modern liberalism believes that conditional government interference can best promote individual dignity and freedom. Conservatives on the other hand, believe that personal freedom in excess can be dangerous for example they criticise the idea of a popular democracy because of this belief. Conservatives maintain that tradition equals security. They believe in tradition over free enquiry where liberals believe in the individual's freedom over authority. Liberalism believes in developing personal freedom, conservatives see this as risky. The liberal meritocracy value is essentially different to the conservative ideology where it is the wealthy and educated who become leaders.

It is as a result of these fundamental differences in their respective ideologies that conservative criticisms of liberalism exist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ɨ Heywood, Politics MacMillan (17)

ɨ D. Held Models of Democracy (187)

ɨ B. Holden Understanding Liberal Democracy (1)

ɨ A.H. Birch The Concept and Theories of Modern Democracy (1)

ɨ T. Hondrich Conservatism (1)

ɨ John Locke Two Treatises on Government

ɨ John S. Mill On Liberty

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Capital punishment

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The subject that I would like to talk about is capital punishment. Capital punishment means, the penalty of death for the commission of a crime (American Heritage, 000). Capital punishment is usually given to people who commit very cruel crimes. I believe in capital punishment. I also feel that we wait too long to carry out the capital punishment. I feel that rapists, drug dealers, and murderers should receive capital punishment. We are too lenient on criminals here in America. I sometimes wonder how can a person, who may commit a not so violent crime, get the same punishment as one who commits a murder. It is not right.

Human rights groups would ask, Is taking a person's life right? To me, it all depends on the crime. If it is violent and hurts or kills someone else, then yes, it deserves the highest punishment, death. I also think the human rights people would rather see these criminals get life in prison then death. Well, do these people understand how much money it takes to house just one inmate? Well, I am sure it costs the taxpayers (you and me and them) a lot of money.

I have found an article that is against capital punishment. The gruesome murders vary widely, but a number of threads link the survivors. In each case, he or she tries to understand the forces that might lead a person to commit murder. In just about every case, grisly details emerge about the murderers background such as abandonment and abuse. Instead of focusing on their rage, the survivors strive to feel compassion for the murderers and their families and to communicate this compassion to them. Many of the survivors evoke God as a reason for their opposition to the death penalty. Says Marietta Jaeger, about her rapport with the man who savagely murdered her seven-year-old daughter I believe that God was loving him through me... desperately needed the love and compassion I felt for him. Says Ron Carlson, whose sister was axed to death, I dont think the Son of God would destroy his own fathers creation. Particularly disturbing are stories that involve the sentencing to death of retarded convicts and juveniles, as well as one man who was ultimately proven innocent. The testimony of families of murder victims is key to anti-death penalty campaigners, and these moving accounts might touch readers who are wavering on the issue (Publisher, 00). Well, I think these people need help mentally. They need to realize that if it happened to their child or love one then it could happen to someone else's child or loved one.

Here is another article that I found that was interesting. Minors cannot vote or run for office, and in most cases they cannot live without guardians. Minors cannot even hold bank accounts or sign legal contracts without the consent of their adult custodians.

These restrictions recognize the fact that juveniles cannot--and should not--be held legally responsible for their actions. Why then do so many states choose to execute criminals whose crimes were committed before the age of 18? Is death not the ultimate in responsibility? If 16-year-olds cannot open bank accounts in their own names, why can they pay for crimes with their lives? This is a double standard. It is with good reason that there are restrictions placed on teenagers. Scientific studies show that teenagers lack the ability to sense the great weight that their decisions can have. Sixteen-year-olds can surely differentiate between right and wrong, but they often lack a fully developed awareness of the consequences of their actions. This is the very quality that distinguishes a responsible adult from a child. The American Bar Association, a professional association for lawyers, agrees. It believes that children are inherently different from adults in their level of responsibility for their actions.

The international community also finds the juvenile death penalty immoral. Executing a minor violates respected international treaties. These treaties recognize that society cannot force someone with an underdeveloped sense of the consequences of their actions to pay with their lives for those actions. A judicial system that takes the life of a child does not truly uphold justice (New York Times Upfront, 00). What bull crap. If you are wise enough (or stupid enough) to kill or hurt someone, then you deserve the same fate. Some people say kids do not always know right from wrong. Well, if they watch any kind of TV, then they have seen criminals and what happens to them when they commit a crime. If the parents do not want there juvenile to face the penalty, then let the parents pay the price for what there kids do.

Here is one final article that I found and I like it. Capital punishment in America is a deliberate, cautious process, with built-in appeals that subject every conviction to a meticulous and rigorous review. Third, claims of racial bias in capital punishment are simply untrue. Forty-eight of the 68 killers executed in 18 were white; only 18 were black. Of all the executions since 176, 56% were white. Of ,45 prisoners on death row at the end of 18, 1,06 were white. What gets you sent to death row in America is not your color; its the nature of the crime you commit, which can often be predicted by past behaviors. If capital punishment discriminates at all it is against violent, habitual offenders, as it should. Two-thirds of death row inmates have prior felony records, and one in 1 has a prior conviction for homicide. Fourth, capital punishment is a deterrent to homicide. No executed killer has ever killed again. Policemen frequently encounter stickup artists and even rapists who say they left their victims alive because of their fear of execution. Does capital punishment deter all murders? Of course not, just as spending five years in prison fails to deter all burglaries. A penalty that deters some is still an effective penalty. Fifth, capital punishment is justice Take a life, forfeit yours. Criminal penalties from restitution for writing bad checks to execution for capital murder--should reflect the crime. Those who claim that capital punishment demeans human life miss the central reason for its existence, which is to exalt innocent human life and to attach the ultimate penalty to the ultimate crime. Finally, I am always a bit puzzled by those who oppose capital punishment because they claim it is remotely possible, somehow, somewhere, for an innocent man to be executed, and yet display no apparent concern for the thousands of innocents who are killed by parolees. When I tightened parole policies in Oklahoma, many of those same criminal justice liberals were outraged, despite the fact that, given recidivism rates of from 0-%, freeing prisoners in wholesale lots inevitably leads to more crime. According to a Department of Justice report, in one 16-month period, criminals out murdered 1,00 innocent Americans on probation or parole. I have yet to hear a peep out of the capital punishment opponents about those victims. As governor of a state with capital punishment, I dont relish the legal role I must play in executing justice. The death penalty is not a laughing matter. It is a serious responsibility. It is also one I intend to fulfill (Human Events, 000).

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American Airlines

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All firms engaged in activities as a tactical entity will, in some form or another, attempt to get a handle on expected demand for their products within a certain future time period such as a week, month, quarter or year. This is a tactical environment and, aside from any earth shattering new developments or shocks to the existing environment, forecasts for expected demand/maximum-likelihood share of market may be made with a fair degree of accuracy with little variance. There are several key points that are important to this process, such as activities of competitors, market projections for the industry by industry insiders/analysts, and a great deal of historical data.

Competitive intelligence is a parameter which attempts to add subjective background to the environment in which demand forecasting is carried out. Information comes from a variety of sources such as secondary information gathered from written sources, direct observation, and from competitors themselves through press releases, industry gatherings and trade journals. This information provides some indication of what the competition plans to do as far as pricing, new products, promotions and distribution/sales. This data has a dual purpose since it may also be used within model based contingency planning when management scrutinizes competition in an effort to uncover developing threats and opportunities. Experienced tactical managers have the valuable ability to incorporate this type of information, which is not easily quantifiable, as a complement to the numerical aspects of demand forecasting. However, this is not to say that there is no information system requirement for this input into the demand forecasting process simply because it is difficult to assimilate into an objective, quantifiable form. On the contrary, a database should be set up in the context of an expert system to contain information gathered on competitors. It must be readily accessible, updated and accurate in order to aid tactical management in this process.

Another input item for demand forecasting comes from aggregate market projections. These types of analyses are readily accessible, mostly in the form of secondary information found in trade journals and economic publications. Airlines and transportation in general comprise a large industrial group within the economy of the United States and, accordingly, there is a large interest in its economic future. Wall Street brokerage firms and other financial firms are resplendent with analysts, some of which are charged with the task of tracking the airline industry's past economic performance, as well as anticipated future projections. All of this knowledge is available from many sources and, again, wise tactical managers will take the time to incorporate it. System facilities required for this type of support for demand forecasting are databases which can contain quantifiable economic information. Since this input to demand forecasting is quantifiable, a database with analytical utilities for ranking and analyzing stored economic projections and raw data are used. This facility may also be presented to management in the guise of a dressed up expert system containing decision table constructs which will allow them to adjust many demand forecasting parameters in order to make the most accurate forecast.

Arguably the most important input into the demand forecasting process is a firm's actual historical data from its own internal records sources. Historical sales data may be thought of as the most dependable and accurate input into demand forecasting since it is derived by the firm itself rather than arriving in a second hand fashion from sources outside of the organization. Historical sales data is helpful not only in developing a demand forecast, but is also used as a check against post production performance when the time arrives to compare actual demand to the forecast. This information will likely come from another massive record keeping database which records sales transactions from the point of sale. For American Airlines, as well as the rest of the airline industry in general, this requirement is served through a reservation system of some kind. The reservation system must be capable of handling queries, data inflows and other types of processing from thousands of nodes. Dummy terminals, which simply display data, will not be sufficient to satisfy reservation system requirements, and any implementation will involve connections and terminals designed to carry two-way traffic. Additional discussion of reservation systems, including specifically what American Airlines has installed, will follow later in this paper.

After satisfying system requirements for generating and handling inputs into the demand forecasting process, the actual forecast derivation may be viewed as somewhat mechanical. The main management decision at this point is determining which type of probabilistic instrument to use with which analytical utility to yield the most accurate results. Some tactical managers may even require an expert system that does nothing more than aid them in selecting the proper mathematical tool to address the forecasting process. There is an array of probabilistic techniques that can satisfy this management requirement including least squares regression analysis, weighted scenarios, Markov-based stochastic projections and others. Many tactical managers may use a combination of these facilities to arrive at a forecast with which they feel satisfied.

A key point to bear in mind when discussing demand forecasting for a tactical entity is that it is central to two important aspects of the firm. The demand forecast is viewed foremost as the progenitor of the firm's production for which it is the main, direct input. However, it is also an indicator of the general trend of the firm's revenues over time. A forecast whose extrapolation to the next period indicates a decline in revenues may be an early warning of something novel in the industry or indicative of a paradigm shift toward a new era. This aspect of troubleshooting will be discussed more at length in a later section concerning requirements for process control.

The demand forecast sets the stage for the next management task -- logistical programming and its accompanying system requirements. Logistical programming is the task charged with accumulating proper amounts of the factors of production in the proper place at the proper time. The four factors of production (material, finance, equipment and manpower) have certain input requirements which determine the amounts of each factor to apply to the production process. Each of these inputs will necessitate the use of some type of information system to aid tactical managers in allocation of these factors to production. One of the first inputs into logistical programming is the supply schedule, which is the main determinant of the amount of products or services offered by a firm. For the airline industry, supply schedules manifest themselves in the form of the magnitude of flights offered to the public.

A demand forecast is the main force behind the supply schedule, but other normative microeconomic factors play an important role in its composition. One of these factors, optimal scale of plant, exerts a direct relationship against the supply schedule and, for American Airlines, consists of the optimal terminal/gate layout at its busiest hub cities. The goal of proper terminal design is to optimize the number and size of the complexes which converge on a hub terminal throughout the day. A complex consists of a group of inbound flights which land within minutes of each other and take-off within minutes of each other. This is the very heart of a hub and spoke system which allows a large number of flights due to the number of possible connections in the hub. Inbound passengers from many cities will all arrive at approximately the same time, disembark, and make connections to many outbound flights which leave within minutes of each other. This occurs many times throughout the day and the system requirement for solving this problem and optimizing the operation is available in the form of CADD design stations.

CAD/CAM design workstations may be used to solve terminal optimization problems and allow engineers to simulate the capability of the terminal to handle certain scenarios. This is, in fact, exactly what American Airlines did when it was searching for the optimum design for its $80 million expansion of its main hub in Dallas/Fort Worth in 18. This simulation model was used by senior management to aid them in their decision on the best design to handle the desired flow of traffic in the narrow operational time constraints necessary for the hub to work. In addition to optimizing the terminal layout, the system was useful in optimizing other related areas. The system/model was used to determine dynamic gate assignments in order to minimize baggage handling costs and passenger delays. Another byproduct of the model was a useful algorithm designed to automatically program and update signs for directing passengers around the terminal. The functional facility was even used to determine the best layout for short-term parking in the face of expected increases in passenger traffic.

Though optimal scale of plant through optimal terminal design is an important aspect of American Airlines' supply schedule determination, the most important part of the supply schedule lies in determining the number of flights to and from certain destinations. For American Airlines and most of the airline industry, flight scheduling is not a simple matter. Flight scheduling is one of the most important tasks performed by tactical airline managers because it is central to where and how the factors of production are allocated. The technical system requirements are myriad, and they must meet the daunting problem of properly scheduling thousands of flights per day between hundreds of domestic and international destinations using a fleet of over 500 aircraft. One main requirement is for a system capable of analyzing past flight offerings in search of patterns of overbookings and empty flights in order to adjust schedules to better meet forecasted demand.

Technical requirements for an airline scheduling system would include a data base structure to house the body of past and present schedules from which managers could choose when composing a new schedule. The problem is compounded since airline schedules are determined months in advance. In addition to using optimization techniques, the system requires certain expert system facilities such as decision table constructs to aid in schedule development. Diagnostic remedial aids are used in order to spot bottlenecks in the proposed schedules where patterns of frequent overbookings are occurring. In addition, remedial systems capable of offering solutions by reshuffling proposed schedules provides valuable information to flight scheduling managers. Historical data is fed into the scheduling model from the database containing past schedules and data concerning past parameters which influenced those schedules. The system takes this data and combines it with the demand forecast in order to develop a preliminary schedule. The process requires diagnostic and remedial systems to optimize the schedule so that the expected demand will be met in the most efficient manner possible.

Even with an optimal schedule in place, there will always be disruptions due to weather and shortages of planes and crews; thus forcing scheduling managers to constantly rearrange flights. Before 11, this was a complex task for American Airlines since dispatchers had to scan data from many different mainframe databases in order to get a handle on managing daily flights. The schedule was constantly being reconfigured to meet anticipated external obstacles such as delays due to inclement weather. In 11, however, American Airlines invested in a new system known as Smalltalk which made schedule maintenance easier and more efficient. Smalltalk uses of object-oriented programming techniques in order to keep flights running smoothly. The dispatcher simply clicks on an object representing a flight and, when he changes the flight, the system automatically updates other objects (flights) in the system in order to propagate the change throughout the entire system. In fact, it only took three programmers eight months to write the program which contained only two errors.

Once an optimal schedule has been developed through simulation and optimization techniques, the next step is to arrange the factors of production in order to generate enough products and/or services to meet prospective demand. Since manpower costs equal over one-third of all expenditures for American Airlines, it is the first factor to receive consideration. Manpower for an airline takes on many forms; however, almost all of the employees of American Airlines can be classified into one of three different broad categories. The first category represents the aircraft crew whose duty stations are on the aircraft pilots, copilots, navigators and flight engineers, as well as the cabin crew or flight attendants. The second category is referred to as maintenance workers, and they are the people that maintain the aircraft, which includes anything from refuelers to engine mechanics. The final classification includes all of the ramp workers such as baggage handlers, ticketing personnel and office workers. By far the most difficult category to allocate within the manpower group is the aircraft crews.

Manpower requirements for airline crews are derived from the flight schedule. The main goal for crew schedulers is to develop a schedule for the entire following month which will ensure that all of the upcoming flights for the month are properly staffed. Flight crews at most airlines bid by seniority for the flights that they will fly in the next month and crew schedulers develop flight packages for them. The flight packages are known in the industry as bidlines. The bidlines in turn are composed of flight segments called trip pairings, and they customarily cover a one to three day time frame. Compounding the problem for the schedulers are FAA and union work rules designed to minimize the risk of accidents resulting from crew fatigue. Therefore, the main requirement of a generation and optimization system is that it is able to find the optimal set of bidlines (i.e. the set which yields the lowest cost) which maximize the utilization of each crew member, evenly distributes flying time among the bidlines and covers every scheduled flight.

The properties inherent in the crew scheduling dilemma require an expert system design. The first part of the system uses manpower loading algorithms, the current and previous month's schedules (from various databases) and optimization techniques in order to develop the set of trip pairings, which would adequately cover all scheduled flights for the upcoming month within FAA and union work guidelines. The trip pairing process is made even more onerous because American Airlines operates several fleets of different aircraft and most pilots are trained to fly only one type. The following diagram illustrates the requirements for a crew assignment system.

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Japan in ww2

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Prior to the 0th century Japan was basically a self-contained, independent nation with little international ties. Japan, a great power since it defeated Russia in the 105 Russo-Japanese War, was engulfed by sever economic depression. The Japanese economy and its people had suffered greatly through the Great Depression and began to sympathise with countries such as Germany and Italy who suffered greatly also. Like Germany and Italy, Japan replaced a parliamentary system with a fascist one under General Hideki Tojo and Emperor Hirohito, the figurehead ruler of Japan to whom all swore absolute allegiance. During the 10s, the Japanese military established almost complete control over the government as it was seen as inadequate because it could not alleviate the stress of the Depression. Many political enemies were assassinated, and communists persecuted. Indoctrination and censorship in education and media were intensified. Navy and army officers soon occupied most of the important offices, including the one of the prime minister. Bent on expansion, Japan saw the raw materials of the Chinese province of Manchuria to be essential to recovering from the effects of the Depression and an aid to successfully complete its plan of expansion through the pacific. Japan followed the example of Western nations and forced China into unequal economical and political treaties. In 11, after assuming control over Korea, Japan invaded Manchuria, it set up a puppet state, known as Manchukuo, in 1. When the League of Nations refused to recognize the new state, Japan simply withdrew from the League. By 17, Japan was waging an undeclared war in China, taking cities up and down the Chinese coast and slaughtering hundreds of thousands of Chinese. According to eastern accounts, World War II began in 11. Japan was able to take over many Asian nations as well as Pacific Island nations fairly easily not only because Japan may have had the greatest navy in the world, but it also had the most clever propaganda policy. The Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, though eventually exposed as a hollow promise of freedom, allowed the Japanese greater freedom when assuming control of the regions in Southeast Asia it needed for rubber, oil, and other raw materials. To Tokyo, Southeast Asia only meant raw materials and the tools of war, a partial explanation for the incredible atrocities inflicted upon these peoples by their Japanese overlords. The Japanese planed to create a domino effect throughout the Pacific Islands and the mainland of Asia by taking the individual nations one at a time or in small groups to establish itself an empire which would be world central because it stretched as far as the international-date-line to the west coast of the United States. With so many military bases and room to spread and travel Japan thought it could establish an empire too great in terms of the shear amount of space it occupied, that none would dare challenge it. By 16, the Japanese Empire included the islands of Japan, the Korean peninsula, and Manchukuo. Since 11, Tokyo had worked to extend itself throughout China; however, after initial success, the Japanese found themselves bogged down in a stalemated war on the Chinese mainland. Still, Japanese expansionist aims went far beyond China. It was their destiny, they believed, to be master of all Asia and the Pacific Ocean.

When war broke out in Europe in September 1, the Japanese, despite a series of victorious battles, had still not brought their war in China to an end on the one hand, the Japanese strategists had made no plans to cope with the guerrilla warfare pursued by the Chinese; on the other, the Japanese commanders in the field often disregarded the orders of the supreme command at the Imperial headquarters and occupied more Chinese territory than they had been ordered to take. ( Jool, J., 168) Half of the Japanese Army was thus still tied down in China when the commitment of Great Britain and France to war against Germany opened up the prospect of wider conquests for Japan in Southeast Asia and in the Pacific. Japans military ventures in China, were consequently restricted rather more severely by choice. ( James, D., 15)The island Archipelago of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) along with French Indochina and British-held Malaya contained raw materials (tin, rubber, petroleum) that were essential to Japans industrial economy, and if Japan could seize these regions and incorporate them into its empire, it could make itself virtually self-sufficient economically and thus become the dominant power in the Pacific Ocean. The United States uttered its first protest against War in the Pacific when Japanese troops entered northern Indochina in September 140. Germany and Italy, by contrast, recognized Japan as the leading power in the Far East by concluding with it the Tripartite, or Axis, Pact of Sept. 7, 140 negotiated by Japanese foreign minister Matsuoka Yosuke, the pact pledged its signatories to come to one anothers help in the event of an attack by a power not already engaged in war. ( Reese, M., 171, p. 1) Japan also concluded a neutrality pact with the U.S.S.R. on April 1, 141. On July , 141, the Imperial Conference decided to press the Japanese advance southward even at the risk of war with Great Britain and the United States. It was considered more important to risk war with more than one enemy at a time than to give up its quest for domination of the Pacific region. The United States reacted vigorously, not only freezing Japanese assets under U.S. control but also imposing an embargo on supplies of oil to Japan. Dismay at the embargo drove the Japanese naval command, which had hitherto been more moderate than the army, into collusion with the armys extremism. ( Harris, N., 16) When negotiations with the Dutch of Indonesia for an alternative supply of oil produced no satisfaction, the Imperial Conference on September 6, at the high commands insistence, decided that war must be undertaken against the United States and Great Britain unless an understanding with the United States could be reached within a few weeks time. General Tojo Hideki, who succeeded Konoe as premier of Japan in mid-October 141, continued the already desperate talks. The United States, however, persisted in making demands that Japan could not concede renunciation of the Tripartite Pact (which would have left Japan diplomatically isolated); the withdrawal of Japanese troops from China and from Southeast Asia (a humiliating retreat from an overt commitment of four years standing); and an open-door regime for trade in China. When Cordell Hull, the U.S. secretary of state, on Nov. 6, 141, sent an abrupt note to the Japanese bluntly requiring them to evacuate China and Indochina and to recognize no Chinese regime other than that of Chiang Kai-shek, the Japanese could see no point in continuing the talks.

The evolving Japanese military strategy was based on the peculiar geography of the Pacific Ocean and on the relative weakness and the non-preparedness of the Allied military presence in that ocean. The western half of the Pacific is dotted with many islands, large and small, while the eastern half of the ocean is, with the exception of the Hawaiian Islands, almost devoid of landmasses (and hence of usable bases). ( James, D., 15) The British, French, American, and Dutch military forces in the entire Pacific region west of Hawaii amounted to only about 50,000 troops, most of them lacking combat experience and being of disparate nationalities. Allied air power in the Pacific was weak and consisted mostly of obsolete planes. If the Japanese, with their large, well-equipped armies that had been battle-hardened in China, could quickly launch coordinated attacks from their existing bases on certain Japanese-mandated Pacific islands, on Formosa (Taiwan), and from Japan itself, they could overwhelm the Allied forces, overrun the entire western Pacific Ocean as well as Southeast Asia, and then develop those areas resources to their own military-industrial advantage. If successful in their campaigns, the Japanese planned to establish a strongly fortified defensive perimeter extending from Burma in the west to the southern rim of the Dutch East Indies and northern New Guinea in the south and sweeping around to the Gilbert and Marshall islands in the southeast and east. (James, D., 15) The Japanese believed that any American and British counteroffensives against this perimeter could be repelled, after which those nations would eventually seek a negotiated peace that would allow Japan to keep her newly won empire.

On Sunday, Dec. 7, 141, a total of about 60 aircraft, composed of dive-bombers, torpedo bombers, and a few fighters, was launched in two waves in the early morning at the giant U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. The base at that time was accommodating 70 U.S. fighting ships, 4 auxiliaries, and some 00 planes. (Harris,N. 16, p.11) The Americans were taken completely by surprise, and all eight battleships in the harbor were hit (though six were eventually repaired and returned to service); three cruisers, three destroyers, a minelayer, and other vessels were damaged; more than 180 aircraft were destroyed and others damaged (most while parked at airfields); and more than ,0 troops were killed and over 1,140 wounded. Japanese losses were comparatively small. The Japanese attack failed in one crucial respect, however; the Pacific Fleets three aircraft carriers were at sea at the time of the attack and escaped harm, and these were to become the nucleus of the United States incipient naval defense in the Pacific. Pearl Harbors shore installations and oil-storage facilities also escaped damage. (Harris, N.16)The Pearl Harbor attack, unannounced beforehand by the Japanese as it was, unified the American public and swept away any remaining support for American neutrality in the war. On December 8 the U.S. Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote.

A unified American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, (ABDACOM), was responsible for holding Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and the approaches to Australia became operative on Jan. 15, 14; but the Japanese had already begun their advance on the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. Japan enjoyed a series of minor victories in South East Asia, mainly because they convinced the natives they would be given the prospect of freedom from their European authorities if they joined with Japan in their struggle against them. These small victories weren't given much thought by the allies until one of the greatest turning points in the history of the war occurred unexpectedly. (Breuer, W. 1) On February 15 Japanese troops forced the 0,000-strong British, Australian, and Indian garrison in Singapore, under Lieutenant General A.E. Percival, to surrender. Singapore was the major British base in the Pacific and had been regarded as unassailable due to its strong seaward defenses. The Japanese took it with comparative ease by advancing down the Malay Peninsula and then assaulting the bases landward side, which the British had left inadequately defended. Japan realized at this moment that victory in the war was attainable and the possibilities that a victory would bring were beyond their original plans as masters of the Pacific region, they could now go global with their empire. When ABDACOM was dissolved on Feb. 5, 14, only Java remained to complete the Japanese program of conquest. (Laidlaw, R. 11) Japans initial war plans were realized with the capture of Java. But despite their military triumphs, the Japanese saw no indication that the Allies were ready for a negotiated peace. On the contrary, it seemed evident that an Allied counterstroke was in the making. Japan with its new found confidence was ready for it. Soon America and Japan were engaged in the battle of the Coral Sea which produced mixed results as Japan failed to gain the area they sought, whilst Americas Navy suffered great loses of ships, artillery and navy personnel.

The Japanese continued with their plan to seize Midway Island. Seeking a naval showdown with the remaining ships of the U.S. Pacific Fleet and counting on their own numerical superiority to secure a victory The Americans, however, had the incomparable advantage of knowing the intentions of the Japanese in advance, thanks to the U.S. intelligence services having broken the Japanese Navys code and deciphered key radio transmissions. ( Harris, N., 16) In the ensuing Battle of Midway, the Japanese ships destined to take Midway Island were attacked while still 500 miles from their target by U.S. bombers on June . The Japanese carriers were still able to launch their aircraft against Midway early on June 4, but in the ensuing battle, waves of carrier- and Midway-based U.S. bombers sank all four of the Japanese heavy carriers and one heavy cruiser. Appalled by this disaster, the Japanese began to retreat in the night of June 4-5. (Harris, N. 16) Midway had been saved from invasion, which was a massive turning point giving the upper-hand back to the Allies, and with a raised morale they continued to push Japan back into its original territory. Following The Battle of Mid-way, Japan consecutively lost battles on the Chinese and Burmese fronts in 14, the Solomons, Papua, Madagascar and the Aleutians in 14. Japanese plans for global domination looked bleak as they struggled to hold onto small land areas which they had easily taken in the early days of their war efforts. On July 7, 145, the Allied powers requested Japan in the Potsdam Declaration to surrender unconditionally, or destruction would continue. However, the military did not think of surrendering under such terms, partially even after US military forces dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and , and the Soviet Union entered the war against Japan on August 8. On August 14, however, the more moderate emperor Showa finally decided to surrender unconditionally. ( Harris, N. 16) Japan's military efforts were brought to a halt and many of the small Islands they had previously claimed under their empire of liberation were given back to the native owners and the European authorities. Japan's, Asia for Asians plan had not been realised and in the post war era, Japan concentrated mainly on opening up trade with America and Russia and other European countries to gain back their trust and also to try and replenish is weakened military.

Overall Japan's initial war effort had been greatly successful and many of their goals concerning Southeast Asia and the Pacific region were achieved. It was not until American Intelligence Agencies cracked Japanese communication codes that the war was turned around. Had these codes not been worked out, the outcome of World War Two could have been very different, as The Battle of Mid-way would have sealed Japan's victory over the Pacific Islands. After a series of consecutive loses after Mid-way Japan began to retreat and its plans for establishing an Empire which would ensure global domination faded. Even its original plan for establishing an empire which stretched across Southeast Asia and the Pacific region, which was meant to boost Japan's economy, military strength and global position as a world power could not be realized as an unconditional surrender to the Allies was Japan's only way to end the suffering of its military and people.

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Stephen king

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Stephen King

IntroductionThesis

Stephen King is a master storyteller associated with the horror genre. Stephen's novels, movies, and short stories have brought tales of horror that are enjoyed by the constant reader, but also contain enough fun for those raised on comic books, thus justifying his widespread appeal and consistent best seller status. Another of Kings attributes is his ability to develop characters to the point which you feel you have known them a lifetime and can identify with them on the most basic, personal level. This degree of character development is absent in most other works of the horror genre. Finally, King possesses the ability to pluck you from the safety and comfort of your reality and plunge you into his. You may find yourself a prisoner in the confines of Shawshank prison, or a victim forced into the sewers of Derry, Maine. The sights, sounds, smells, feelings, and weather create a place so vivid that the reader becomes part of the reality that is the story.

History of Stephen King

Stephen King was born in Portland, Maine in September of 147. When he was just two years old, his parent's marriage dissolved. His father stepped out to buy a pack of cigarettes and never returned. From that point, the King family became nomads, staying with one family member after another until finally settling back in Maine, where King still resides.

King's first encounter with horror happened when he was only seven years old, in the form of a radio adaptation of Ray Bradbury's story Mars Is Heaven. (Beahm, 1) Also at seven years old, he saw The Creature from the Black Lagoon, which was his first exposure to horror on film. King later would say that since then, he still sees things cinematically. Stephen's passions for writing sparked in 15 when he started writing short columns for a local newspaper. A few years later, he became interested in fiction, when he found a box that belonged to his father, full of old science fiction and horror magazines. He then began writing fiction, but soon realized that he lacked the science grounding to produce anything but short stories. He submitted these short horror stories to several men's magazines, such as Cavalier and Time, who would publish many of them. That was his introduction to the horror genre. He continued to write through his college years at the University of Maine, being influenced by such writers as Thomas Hardy, Jack London, and Theodore Dreiser. Also at the University of Maine, King met Tabitha Spruce, a writer, who would later become his wife. Just a few years out of college, King found himself unable to support his growing family on writing alone, therefore decided to take a position teaching English. While working as a teacher, King continued to write, penning a novel, Carrie, and with high hopes submitted it to his publisher. King living in a rented trailer without a phone, got word that Carrie was wanted for paperback rights. Becoming his first bestseller, Carrie earned King over $400,000, which allowed him to fulfill his childhood dream of becoming a full time writer.

Impact on the Horror Genre

Kings novels not only relate to the everyday fears of the average person, but he often goes beyond that fear. He gets his inspiration from his owns fears, as well as the community around him. He frequently writes of small, rural towns, and being scared of spiders, elevators, closed in places, the dark, sewers, funerals, being buried alive, cancer, hear attacks, the number thirteen, black cats, walking under ladders and simply being terrified of death itself. The underlying meaning of Carrie and all of Kings subsequent effort can best be described by King himself

…there is a primal desire, a real need in us all to

somehow prepare for death, to in some way experience the

void, without actually going through the experience of

dying. As he has often said, we need to rehearse for

death, because knowing, in some small, incomplete ways,

what death might be like, may make it easier when the time

actually does come. (Spicnedi, )

This degree of exploration of the death process is unique to only King. His combination of extensive research and layered plot lines produce create believable and masterful literary works, creating a standard by which all other horror writers are judged.

Reviews of his Work

Stephen King is critiqued and analyzed in many different ways. There are many critics who do not agree with Time, that King is a master of post-literate prose. (Russell, ) Some critics, such as Douglas E. Winter, have placed King in the American Gothic Tradition. His work has been compared to that of Crockden Brown, Irving, Poe, Hawthorne, Melville, Henry James, Chambers, Bierce, Lovecraft, and Leiber. (Schweitzer, 5) Winter reports that the only difference between King and writers like Lovecraft and Poe is that King fails to create a timeless world that can be appreciated centuries from now. In the majority of Kings books, there is a monster or evil being that lurks upon the main characters of the novel. In Shawshank Redemption, King uses several evil things to produce an extremely deep story line. The last words of the story are I hope, spoken by the character Red. The entire story is focused on the idea of hope. King writes, there are two different kinds of people in prison, those who have hope and those who don't dare. Rarely does King make his plot line and subject so blatantly clear through out this works, but in this piece Andy Dufresne (an innocent man sentenced to life without parole in Shawshank) clings to the hope of getting out of prison throughout the entire story. Thus, making the tangible evil his unjust incarceration, and the underlying evil his seemingly false hope of getting out of Shawshank. In the screenplay, the character Red states outright, Hope is a dangerous thing. For the King fan, this screenplay is one of the few that do justice to the original writing. The film draws the viewer into the story, and so few details are left out that the tale remains there true to its origins. The fates of some characters are altered, but do not take away from the true meaning of this work. Overall the quality of the short story and screen adaptation are exemplary. From the first page and the first scene the reader and the viewer are drawn into the confines of Shawshank prison, which in this case is a wonderful place to spend two hours.

Conclusion

In conclusion, King is one of the most popular authors of the horror genre. He produces stories of suspense, shock, mystery, death, and combining all, fear. That is the essence of storytelling if the writer had done his job, the reader will slip effortlessly from the real work in to the hypnotic world of fiction, the transition is so smooth, the reader will never notice. (Beahm, 4) Any novel offers the reader an opportunity to share in the action, however fear demand more, forcing the reader not only to share in the action but become an interregnal element of the story. King is able to create stories, characters and situations that elicit intense emotional responses from his readers and viewers. This act alone defines Stephen King as one the best writers of his genre.

Please note that this sample paper on stephen king is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on stephen king, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on stephen king will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Select two Christian denominations and explain their approach to Holy Communion. Compare and contrast the main features of their celebrations.

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1a) Select two Christian denominations and explain their approach to Holy Communion. Compare and contrast the main features of their celebrations.

I have chosen to write about the Roman Catholic and the Baptist Church for the comparison and contrasting of how two different Christian denominations celebrate Holy Communion.

Almost all Christian traditions have Communion services at which the bread and wine are taken in memory of Jesus' sacrifice at Calvary. Christians understand Communion in different ways depending on how they interpret the celebration of the Last Supper.

For many Christians, Communion is the central ceremony of their worshipping life. It is a memorial of Jesus' last meal before he died. By sharing a meal of bread and wine, Christians remember the saving power of Jesus' death and resurrection as members of the family of the church.

Jesus shared a meal with his disciples on the evening before he died. Christians call this meal 'The last supper'. It took place in an upstairs room in a house in Jerusalem. Jesus was a Jew so this Passover meal would have all the symbols and gestures of the ancient ceremony but Jesus changed this ancient ceremony by offering up his body and blood. 'This is my blood which is poured out for many, my blood which seals God's covenant'.

Jesus is saying to his disciples that his work is nearly complete and that he is going to die. The next time he will celebrate with them will be at the Messianic banquet at the end of time. 'I tell you, I will never again drink this wine until the day I drink the new wine in the Kingdom of God'.

At the Last Supper Jesus was celebrating a Passover meal and he gave it a new meaning. Now, when we hold a Communion service it is like a new Passover. We are asking God to take an event that happened in the past and bring it and the events surrounding it into the present for us- this is known as 'Anamnesis', which the Roman Catholic Church believes.

At the Old Covenant, the sacrifice was the lamb that was sacrificed to save the Jews from slavery. Just as the lamb was eaten so the bread and wine are consumed. Jesus is actually referring to his body and blood. The bread is his body and the wine is his blood.

There are a number of similarities and differences between the Roman Catholic Church and the Baptist Church. The most significant difference between the two Churches is that Roman Catholics believe in Transubstantiation and the Baptist Church believes in Consubstantiation.

Consubstantiation is the belief that at the Eucharist the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ in a symbolic way while in no way ceasing to be bread and wine. Transubstantiation is the belief that at the Eucharist, when the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, there is a change in the substance (real presence) of the bread and wine.

'Drink from it all of you'. This is my blood of the new Covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins'.

The wine did not become the actual blood of Jesus. How could it before he died? The Jews used blood as a symbol for violent death- here the wine symbolises Jesus' death. 'By the covenant', Jesus was referring to the agreement made between Abraham and God, through which the Jews had become Gods chosen people. Through his death, Jesus has set the seal on a new covenant between God and the Christian Church whereby Jesus would become the sacrificial lamb.

Bread and wine are the outward signs of the gift he was giving. He said, I am the bread of life symbolize the fact that his sacrificial death would bring about a new covenant between God and the human race.

The word Eucharist means 'Thanksgiving' we give thanks especially in the Roman Catholic Church for this sacrifice which Jesus made.

Nearly all Christian Churches celebrate the Eucharist although the emphasis and meaning that they attach to this celebration varies considerably. The Eucharist is the most important sacrament because Christ is present in it even before it is shared. It is the summit to which the Christian life aspires and the source of the most important Christian blessings.

A similarity between the two churches is the sacrament that the bread and wine symbolize Jesus' body on the cross with his lifeblood flowing out.

In the Baptist church, the minister takes the cup, gives thanks and offers it to the people saying

Drink from it, all of you. This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.

In saying that the wine is His blood, for Baptists, it does not literally mean that it changes into His blood just as the cup of water, which David's friends secured for him in peril of their lives, represented to him. This is a contrast/ between the two churches.

A similarity between the Catholic Church and the Baptist Church would be that when they go to the table, they come not to remember a dead Christ; they expect to meet a living Saviour.

The purpose of Christ's death and resurrection was to make it possible for sinful man to be 'accounted as righteous' so that we can enter into His presence, not only in the spiritual sense but also in His physical presence.

Another similarity between the two churches is that when they look up, it reminds them of their relationship with the Lord Jesus. That we cannot do anything in our strength that we must die with Him in that we surrender our lives to His will.

A major difference between the two churches would be how the ceremony is organized in the Baptist Church. On the upper or lower platform there is usually a plain wooden table, some chairs, a lectern, some flowers and a screen with an overhead projector or a video projector. There are also microphones and other special equipment (like a television set and video), which are used during the service. The Roman Catholic Church has a more traditional ceremony and has a more frequent service than the Baptist Church. The Roman Catholic Church has a service every day when it is possible to receive Holy Communion whereas the Baptist Church has a service once or twice a month. Also the Baptist Churches ceremony may vary from Parish to Parish, to country to country but the Roman Catholic Church is almost the same from one Parish to the next. The Baptist Church has a more informal service. A communion service is a simple (and symbolic) meal sometimes called communion. Other Christian denominations have their equivalent of the communion service which they call mass or the Eucharist. But Baptists do not give the bread and wine special or mystical significance. We use them to represent the body and blood of Jesus and give thanks for what they represent. Unlike some Christian denominations, they do not believe that they become the body and blood of Jesus a teaching which they call transubstantiation. This is another major difference between the two religions. Another difference is that Baptist Church buildings will usually have a communion table which is a simple wooden table. It is not called the altar and has no special significance other than as a table! It is called a communion table because it is there to be used as a table primarily during a communion service. Communion tables often have Do this in remembrance of me carved on them that is, hold a communion service in memory of Jesus.

b) For individual members of each denomination, explain how the beliefs and practices you have identified would affect their lives.

In this section we are explaining how the celebration of Holy Communion for individual members from the Roman Catholic and Baptist Church have had their lives affected by their beliefs and practices.

Roman Catholics rely heavily on the mass and especially Holy Communion for guidance of their beliefs and practices in their everyday lives. Baptists on the other hand rely heavily on the scriptures to provide them with an interpretation of their beliefs and practices in their everyday lives.

Roman Catholics see taking the body and blood of Christ as a reminder that they need to follow his example and give thanks (meaning of the word Eucharist a thanksgiving meal) for the sacrifice Jesus made on the cross i.e. to save us from sin, allow us to reconcile ourselves and find a way back to God. This would encourage us not to sin, not to commit acts of evil against our fellow men To be 'the salt of the earth'.

Baptists while attaching different degrees of relevance and significance still give communion reverence to the fact that it reminds them of the Passion, death and resurrection and as a sign of their fellowship not only as a family but fellowship within the Christian community. Also as a family they believe in their personal subordination … that is to put themselves last in all things for the good of the family.

Both Baptists and Roman Catholics recognise their responsibility to the poor. The end of mass response 'Go in peace to love and to serve'. Baptists too believe in this and support Cooperative Program because 'If one part of the body hurts so close the whole body, the same comes, from being a member of the Christian body. Both Corinthians and Acts of the Apostles tells us about living out the faith in our lives can be done by helping the less well off.

'Love one another as you love yourself'. This is telling us that we should treat our neighbours, as we would like to be treated ourselves. It is the second most important commandment made by Jesus. The word 'Yourself' means one personally and also one family emphasising the idea of the Christian family.

Roman Catholics see beyond the 'bread' to the spiritual nourishment and satisfaction of having received the body of Christ. Although Jesus is not physically present in the bread and wine, He is spiritually present at the table. We read that the couple walking along the road to Emmaeus recognized Jesus in the breaking of the bread.

'When he was at the table with them, he took bread, gave thanks, broke it and began to give it to them. Then their eyes were opened and they recognized him and he disappeared from their sight.'

c) 'How a Christian treats other people is more important than whether or not he/she receives communion.' Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer showing that you have considered more than one point of view.

A Christian is a person who follows and hopes to practice the values and attitudes of Christ's teaching. These values and attitudes include being kind to others, helping other people, and trying not to sin. To Christians, Holy Communion has a special significant meaning. It tells us of how Jesus sacrificed his body, through suffering and death, on the cross, so that Man could be saved from sin, and that we could be reconciled with God the Father despite having sinned. For me, as a practising Roman Catholic, I believe that all Christians should receive Holy Communion. I believe that through receiving Holy Communion we are getting a part of Jesus' body and by taking the wine we are drinking 'His blood'.

Roman Catholics believe in 'Transubstantiation'. Transubstantiation is the belief that at the Eucharist, when the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, there is a change in the substance (real presence) of the bread and wine. Through receiving Holy Communion we are gaining spiritual strength from the Lord Jesus Christ. Holy Communion is a 'food' and by receiving it we are gaining links to our faith.

Some Christians however, fail to see the lack of importance of Holy Communion. Instead they favour other values and beliefs. E.g. The Salvation Army doesn't believe so much in outward signs and never celebrate Holy Communion. They believe helping others is much more important to live out the great commandment which commands love God and love your neighbour as yourself.

In the Methodist Church, Holy Communion is celebrated once or twice a month on 'Sacrament Sunday'. It usually takes place after the main service. Methodists call the Eucharist 'Holy Communion'. The service is led by a minister who says the Prayer of Thanksgiving over the bread and wine. This tells the story of the Last Supper and is taken from one of the Gospels 'this is my body. This is my blood'.

Anglican, Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians regard the Eucharist as their principal act of worship. The Eucharist is celebrated every Sunday, and often during the week as well.

Baptist, Methodist and United Reformed and other free churches may celebrate the Eucharist once or twice a month. Their worship is pulpit-centred and, therefore, the main emphasis of each service is on readings from the Bible and preaching.

The Salvation Army and the Society of Friends (the Quakers) do not have Eucharistic services. These Christians do not believe that outward symbols are important. They believe that the most important part of Christian worship is to accept Jesus Christ into our hearts. They honour Christ's sacrifice on the cross in the way they live their lives.

Conclusion

I feel that the statement that 'How a Christian treats a person is more important than whether or not he/she receives Holy Communion' is very much decided by the Church to which you belong or have been brought up in and I feel that despite some of these Churches not attaching the same importance to Holy Communion as I do they still exhibit the Christian values which Jesus wanted us as followers to aspire to. I think that in order to be called a Christian we must receive the sacrament Holy Communion. Without getting the sacrament I believe that we are not getting the spiritual strength, which Communion gives us. I think that through receiving Jesus' body in communion, it is giving us the strength to carry out his wishes and to honour the 10 commandments. Throughout this course, I have learnt that different Christians interpret the meaning and significance of Holy Communion differently. However, I believe that the Roman Catholic's interpretation for me, is the most important because I think that when we are receiving Holy Communion we are gaining a bit of Christ's body and when we are drinking the wine we are drinking his blood. I feel that this is bringing us closer to be united with God, in the Kingdom of God.

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Graphic Designer

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Kristy Valeriano

Richard Zimmer

Visual Communications Art 140

Graphic Artist/ Designer

Osamu Tezuka

Heralded by many as the God of Manga, Tezuka Osamu was one of Japans most cherished and prolific manga and anime artists. He has been described as the Japanese Walt Disney. He, perhaps more than any other artist, was responsible for the very characteristic puppy-dog eyes which has become a trademark of Japanese animation.

Dr. Tezuka did receive his medical degree from Osaka University in 146, though he concentrated on his career of choice the art of manga and animation. His most famous creation is probably Tetsuwan Atom, which has a large following internationally as AstroBoy. NBC later aired three of his TV series AstroBoy, Kimba the White Lion (which many have claimed as Disneys inspiration for The Lion King), and Princess Knight.

Inspired by his great love for cartoon animation, Disney in particular (its said he saw Walt Disneys Bambi 80 times), he set up Mushi Studios, his own production company, (161-17) which became a springboard for a number of influential animators who were to follow, including Katsuhiro Otomo (Akira). Unlike Disney which some people say has replaced its pioneering vision with a corporate mentality, Tezukas vision remained fresh. Osamu Tezuka gained popularity as a manga writer and illustrator up through the 150s. He is widely credited as the most influential animator in Japan. Tezuka's career parallels the rise of the Japanese animation industry.

His first production company, formed in 161, Mushi Productions, was later replaced by his namesake corporation, Tezuka Productions in 168. Dr. Tezuka was heavily involved with experimental animation, and had won several international animation awards, including the Grand Prix for Jumping at the 184 Zagreb International Festival, the Grand Prix for Broken Down Film at the Hiroshima International Animation Festival, and the CIFEJ award for Legend of the Forest at the 188 Zagreb International Film Festival.

The world has changed a lot in the past years. When Osamu Tezuka was stunning Japan with his Tetsuwan Atomu in 16, Japan was generally considered a place that copied American goods and produced cheap toys. The economic miracle still hadnt taken hold. On the whole, the country had not forgiven itself for events of the 10s and 140s. The destruction caused by the Second World War was not far removed from everyday life, and the atomic destruction of Nagasaki and Hiroshima were very fresh memories indeed. It was therefore a bold move as Tezuka, an established manga artist, told a story of the little robot boy with an atomic heart, disowned by his creator for the unpardonable sin of being a failure (he never grew), the little robot is rescued by people who care. They nurture and accept this heartless creature. These people were the advocate of the very race who shunned him and all his kind. In the 1st century robots are second-class citizens ... useful at times, but not imbibed with the same rights as people. In their gradual acceptance of Mighty Atom, they all become a bit more human. This show did something else pretty amazing too Producer Fred Ladd took a look at it and decided that it might actually sell over in America ... but the Japanese would have to make it more presentable to the United States.

Cells were added to censor the anime and the American money entered the project as Astro Boy was born. NBC had the rights, yet the T.V. station never aired it. With national syndication, Astro Boy became a hit, and inspired many of the First Wave anime fans (like myself). Then, as they do now, the US broadcasters complained about the violence in the shows, and that characters might actually die during the course of a story. This, as Uncle Walt had taught us, was a medium for children, and children could not be trusted with such an advanced concept as death. The Japanese were exposed to these stories more and it was not relevant to them. Therefore, the American audiences never saw the last episode.

Perhaps most surprising to many American fans, Tetsuwan Atomu was not considered to be Tezukas greatest work. His lifework Hi No Tori (Bird of Fire), runs from the distant past to the distant future, sadly it was not completed before his untimely death on February nd 18. Dr. Tezuka is best remembered for his little robot boy and his sister (interestingly, Atomu and Uran meaning atom and uranium). Some of his more experimental films like Jumping, Broken Down Film, Legend of the Forest, and his epic series about a little white lion with black ears ... a series which shares many elements with a Disney film from a few years ago. The lion in the US version of the series was called Kimba ... although his original name was Simba. Well leave you to draw your own conclusions, but Disney steadfastly denies that anyone based their story on the Tezuka classic. Some in the industry find this not to be a defensible position.

Shortly after the firestorm descended on Disney, the company took the position that it was largely unaware of Japanese Animation in general, and Tezuka in particular. Their animators were not influenced at all during the production of their own King-of-the-Jungle lion film. The scenes that were lifted from Tezuka splash panels were merely a coincidence. It was therefore a bit of a reversal when shortly afterward Disney and Studio Ghibli announced that Miyazakis back catalog of films would be distributed by Disney ... a company that was officially unaware of the medium.

Even before Tezuka's death, other powerful influences were making their marks with manga and television series. Eight Man (TOBOR, the Eighth Man), Kaitei Shonen Marin (Marine Boy), and Tetsujin 8 (Gigantor) all found their way to American TV in the 160s and very early 170s. Filling Tezukas shoes was probably impossible, but the Starving Seven (an artist hothouse project started by Tezuka) were each destined to make their own way in this fledgling industry. Members of this core group are still active today, but one of the first to break out and take the world by the horns was Liegi Matsumoto. His Space Cruiser Yamato (Star Blazers) triggered the Second Wave of fans almost by itself in the US, and many of us think that its only a matter of time before his presence is felt again in the animation industry. The Cockpit, gives very interesting insight about just how cool this guys stuff can be ... and were all just waiting for an announcement about some of his older stuff being revived as everything old is new again. While much of anime is geared toward adults, a great deal of Tezukas work seems to be directed at children. I think its safe for me to say that Osamu Tezuka was a pioneer in the anime world. He was an artist, writer/illustrator of comic books and comic strips throughout the 150s. Tezuka foreshadowed his own career by setting up comics to read like films. The National Museum of Modern Art in Tokyo held a public exhibit of Dr. Tezukas works in 10 -- the first ever for a commercial manga artist. April 4, 14 became a hallmark in manga and anime history. In his hometown, his fans drew his pictures on the wall its very popular among the people in his hometown. The Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum was opened in his hometown of Takarazuka, in memory of the father of anime.

Please note that this sample paper on Graphic Designer is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Graphic Designer, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Graphic Designer will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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