EXAMINE THE CORE ELEMENTS OF LIBERALISM AND DISCUSS THE CONSERVATIVE CRITICISMS OF LIBERALISM.

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In order to examine the core elements of liberalism and discuss the conservative criticisms of liberalism I must address the key topics of the essay. I need to know what exactly being a liberal or conservative is all about and therefore must examine their political ideologies and history. I will also address their main goals, beliefs, values and key thinkers and the differences between the two. Firstly, I must establish what exactly is a political ideology.

John Rawls and Robert Nozik were the first people to sit down and investigate political theories. They came to the conclusion that they seek to analyse and explain the world in terms of moral values and philosophical beliefs. Therefore, an ideology is a fluid set of ideas which provide basis for some kind of political action. They contain both descriptive and normative ideas. They offer an account of how society works, a vision of the desired future and an outline of how this political change should be brought about i.e. it is action orientated.

In Heywood's introduction to political ideologies (1 MacMillan) he says that Karl Marx uses ideology in a negative sense. He believes that ideological ideas were false and that they have distorted reality. Liberal writers like Popper and Bell use ideology in the negative sense also. They regard it as a closed system of political thought. Seligers definition sees it as comprehensive. He sees ideologies as a set of ideas which provide basis for some kind of political action.

Ideologies address a broad range of themes and often contain several rival traditions. For example Liberalism is divided into Classical and Modern. Socialism is divided into Marxism and Social Democracy and Conservatism is divided into New Right and Traditional Conservative. Each is being constantly revised but they all possess a characteristic set of ideas and beliefs. Political ideologies are therefore traditions of thought which have changed and developed in history as a result of several arguments and debates.

LIBERALISM

Liberalism is an attitude, philosophy or movement that has as it's basic concern the development of personal freedom and social progress. It is in effect, the ideology of the industrialised west. Social change is conceived of as gradual, flexible, adaptive and seen as fundamental and based on new principles of authority. It's main values are freedom of speech and movement, liberty, autonomy and choice.

To be Liberal was the term used to refer to a class of free men during the fourteenth century. Liberal ideas were the result of the breakdown of feudalism in Europe and the growth of a capitalist society in it's place. The middle class had conflicted interests with the monarchs and they challenged their power. Liberal thinking was hostile to the prerogatives of kings, aristocrats and the church. The liberals sought to reform and had radical ideas. Liberals advocated industrialisation and market economic order free from Government interference i.e. free trade with other countries and the pursuit of profits. This idea was developed by economist John Maynard Keynes and became known as laissez-faire capitalism. After the french revolution liberalism shed some of it's reliance on rationalism and began to base itself on utilitarianism. A link was thus forged between early revolutionary individualism and a new idealistic concern for the interests of society.

Between the mid-seventeenth centuries the liberals fought chiefly against oppression and misuses of power. They emphasised the needs of the free individual and it was at this time that we saw the growth of the natural rights theories i.e. life, liberty and justice.

Areopagita, one of the classics of liberal thinking was also produced in the seventeenth century. It was a treatise written by John Milton in which he advocated the freedom of thought and expression. John Locke was another influential liberal. He was in fact, one of the first thinkers to formulate a comprehensive liberal philosophy. He argued for sovereignty, the right of rebellion against oppression and toleration of the religious minorities. According to Locke the state exists to serve its citizens and to guarantee life, liberty and property under a constitution.

Liberalism is divided into two categories CLASSICAL and MODERN

Classical liberalism is also known as nineteenth century liberalism. It developed during the transition feudalism to capitalism. It's belief is in negative freedom i.e. the absence of external constraints upon the individual. The natural rights, utilitarianism, social Darwinism and economic liberalism all make up the classical liberalism basics. This deep faith in the free market and the belief that the economy works best when left alone by the government is clear from the words of Thomas Jefferson The government is best which governs least. However, the state is seen as a necessary evil (Tom Paine). In other words, the classical liberals accept that the state has to interfere with society to maintain law and order. They are keen for minimal state interference as they believe that it limits citizens freedom.

The laissez-faire doctrine, developed by Adam Smith, is another aspect of the classical liberalism. Laissez-faire capitalism is seen as guaranteeing prosperity and the natural rights.

MODERN Liberalism is a more sympathetic attitude toward state intervention. It came about in the late1800's and twentieth century when political and economic thinking among the liberals began to change. They began to support the idea that the government can best promote individual dignity and freedom through intervention in the economy and by establishing a state concerned about the welfare of its people. Modern liberals abandoned their beliefs in laissez-faire capitalism. J.M. Keynes insight that prosperity could only be maintained through a system of managed capitalism with economic responsibility being placed in the hands of the state helped this come about. However, their support for government interference has always been conditional. With the rise of the welfare state the new liberals also looked to the government to correct some of the ills believed to be caused by capitalism. They favoured taxation, social security, safety and health laws, consumer protection etc.. However, today liberalism is moving to the right of the political spectrum and moving away from modern liberal ideas.

There are several core elements of liberalism. There is a strong belief in the rational human being and autonomy the ability to have an environment where you can self-direct. The liberal ideology centres around the natural rights of life, liberty and property and it is the governments responsibility to respect and protect these rights. However, the core principle of liberalism is individualism. Here the human individual is the dominant and important element. Humans are seen as unique individuals first, each with separate morals etc.. The liberal goal here is to produce a society in which they can develop to their full potential. The individual is not accountable to society for his actions in so far as these concern the interests of no person but himself J.S. Mills pointing out that individual freedom is given limited priority over authority. However liberals do advocate freedom under the law where it is recognised the one persons liberty may be a threat to another persons, but the law can only become involved if the individual has harmed another human. The only purpose for which power can be exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. (J.S. Mill on Liberty). Through the concept of reason individuals are encouraged to resolve their differences through debate or argument rather than war. Progress is the key issue here.

Liberals believe that all human beings are born equal morally. They favour equality of opportunity and hold the opinion that toleration is a guarantee of an individual's liberty. Toleration involves being willing to allow others to think, speak and act as they wish even if it is difficult to do so. They also have a strong belief in meritocracy i.e. the principle that rewards and positions should be distributed on the basis of ability. They find it difficult to understand the idea of irreconcilable conflict, believing in a harmony between rival views. The government is seen as a guarantee to order and stability in society but power tends to corrupt (Lord Acton) and therefore the liberals believe in limited government and in a written constitution defining the relationship between the state and the individual. (Heywood-Politics MacMillan 17).

CONSERVATISM

Conservatism A general state of mind that is adverse to rapid change and innovation and strives for balance and order while avoiding extremes. In the political sense, conservatism means a belief in the importance of maintaining established values and institutions.

Conservatives feel that rapid change is likely to bring about more ills than benefits, especially when it attacks the ways of life that have developed over a long period of time. They are pessimistic about the changes of improving people's behaviour through social change and are often sceptical of popular democracy and what they see as an excess of personal freedom. Conservatism is distinct from reaction, however, whereas conservatives seek to prevent the erosion of important values and institutions they do not (like reactionaries) want to return to the Good old days of the past.

Conservatives usually favour traditional religion, even though they themselves may be non-believers and in capitalist countries they tend to be pro-business and anti-government. However, in communist societies they are likely to favour agrarian policies and oppose industrialisation, showing again their belief in maintaining established institutions, that tradition equals security.

The conservative political creed roots trace back to the late eighteenth century as a reaction against the great enlightenment. They believed in faith over reason. The conservatives stood in defence of social traditions. Tradition was believed to stand over free enquiry as was hierarchy over equality.

Conservatism received its classic formulation in the works of Dublin born UK statesman Edmund Burke. This type of conservatism was more flexible and cautious than the form which had emerged in continental Europe. Burke viewed society as a whole with individuals performing various roles and functions. Each individual was said to have a social obligation. In this society the wealthy and educated individuals would become leaders which is the complete opposite to the liberal principle of meritocracy. The conservatives believe that a community is held together by customs and traditions, where only gradual and accepted changes can be made. Burke and the conservatives criticised the liberal principles of equality, popular representation and popular sovereignty. They also disagreed with the notion of universal franchise and majority rule one of the core elements of liberalism. Their ideology centred around the belief in the supremacy of the law above the natural rights. This was perhaps one of the key differences between liberalism and conservatism. They strongly disagreed with the liberal ideology of individual freedom being given priority over authority.

The core elements of conservatism are quite the opposite of those of the liberals. The conservatives believe in maintaining established customs and institutions (tradition). They place their faith in experience, history and pragmatism i.e. action should be shaped by practical goals and circumstances. Organicism is the belief that shared values and cultures are vital to maintain the community's stability. Society is seen as a whole with individuals providing unique tasks and roles (Burke's theory).

Authority is another core element of conservatism. It is bel;ieved that those in authority provide leadership, guidance and support for those who lack the ability to act wisely. Before we can re-mould society intelligently,, we must understand it's functioning we must realise that, even when we believe that we understand it, we may be mistaken. What we must learn to understand is that human civilisation has a life of it's own. That all our efforts to improve things must operate with a working whole which we cannot entirely control……. F Hayek. 160 The Constitution of Liberty.

It has become apparent throughout my essay that the liberal and conservative ideologies are in fact, very different. Conservative criticisms of liberalism are therefore inevitable.

Where liberals advocate industrialisation and a market economy free from state interference, the conservatives believe in the welfare state.

Classical liberalism believes that the economy works best with minimal state interference. Modern liberalism believes that conditional government interference can best promote individual dignity and freedom. Conservatives on the other hand, believe that personal freedom in excess can be dangerous for example they criticise the idea of a popular democracy because of this belief. Conservatives maintain that tradition equals security. They believe in tradition over free enquiry where liberals believe in the individual's freedom over authority. Liberalism believes in developing personal freedom, conservatives see this as risky. The liberal meritocracy value is essentially different to the conservative ideology where it is the wealthy and educated who become leaders.

It is as a result of these fundamental differences in their respective ideologies that conservative criticisms of liberalism exist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ɨ Heywood, Politics MacMillan (17)

ɨ D. Held Models of Democracy (187)

ɨ B. Holden Understanding Liberal Democracy (1)

ɨ A.H. Birch The Concept and Theories of Modern Democracy (1)

ɨ T. Hondrich Conservatism (1)

ɨ John Locke Two Treatises on Government

ɨ John S. Mill On Liberty

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