Select two Christian denominations and explain their approach to Holy Communion. Compare and contrast the main features of their celebrations.

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1a) Select two Christian denominations and explain their approach to Holy Communion. Compare and contrast the main features of their celebrations.

I have chosen to write about the Roman Catholic and the Baptist Church for the comparison and contrasting of how two different Christian denominations celebrate Holy Communion.

Almost all Christian traditions have Communion services at which the bread and wine are taken in memory of Jesus' sacrifice at Calvary. Christians understand Communion in different ways depending on how they interpret the celebration of the Last Supper.

For many Christians, Communion is the central ceremony of their worshipping life. It is a memorial of Jesus' last meal before he died. By sharing a meal of bread and wine, Christians remember the saving power of Jesus' death and resurrection as members of the family of the church.

Jesus shared a meal with his disciples on the evening before he died. Christians call this meal 'The last supper'. It took place in an upstairs room in a house in Jerusalem. Jesus was a Jew so this Passover meal would have all the symbols and gestures of the ancient ceremony but Jesus changed this ancient ceremony by offering up his body and blood. 'This is my blood which is poured out for many, my blood which seals God's covenant'.

Jesus is saying to his disciples that his work is nearly complete and that he is going to die. The next time he will celebrate with them will be at the Messianic banquet at the end of time. 'I tell you, I will never again drink this wine until the day I drink the new wine in the Kingdom of God'.

At the Last Supper Jesus was celebrating a Passover meal and he gave it a new meaning. Now, when we hold a Communion service it is like a new Passover. We are asking God to take an event that happened in the past and bring it and the events surrounding it into the present for us- this is known as 'Anamnesis', which the Roman Catholic Church believes.

At the Old Covenant, the sacrifice was the lamb that was sacrificed to save the Jews from slavery. Just as the lamb was eaten so the bread and wine are consumed. Jesus is actually referring to his body and blood. The bread is his body and the wine is his blood.

There are a number of similarities and differences between the Roman Catholic Church and the Baptist Church. The most significant difference between the two Churches is that Roman Catholics believe in Transubstantiation and the Baptist Church believes in Consubstantiation.

Consubstantiation is the belief that at the Eucharist the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ in a symbolic way while in no way ceasing to be bread and wine. Transubstantiation is the belief that at the Eucharist, when the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, there is a change in the substance (real presence) of the bread and wine.

'Drink from it all of you'. This is my blood of the new Covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins'.

The wine did not become the actual blood of Jesus. How could it before he died? The Jews used blood as a symbol for violent death- here the wine symbolises Jesus' death. 'By the covenant', Jesus was referring to the agreement made between Abraham and God, through which the Jews had become Gods chosen people. Through his death, Jesus has set the seal on a new covenant between God and the Christian Church whereby Jesus would become the sacrificial lamb.

Bread and wine are the outward signs of the gift he was giving. He said, I am the bread of life symbolize the fact that his sacrificial death would bring about a new covenant between God and the human race.

The word Eucharist means 'Thanksgiving' we give thanks especially in the Roman Catholic Church for this sacrifice which Jesus made.

Nearly all Christian Churches celebrate the Eucharist although the emphasis and meaning that they attach to this celebration varies considerably. The Eucharist is the most important sacrament because Christ is present in it even before it is shared. It is the summit to which the Christian life aspires and the source of the most important Christian blessings.

A similarity between the two churches is the sacrament that the bread and wine symbolize Jesus' body on the cross with his lifeblood flowing out.

In the Baptist church, the minister takes the cup, gives thanks and offers it to the people saying

Drink from it, all of you. This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.

In saying that the wine is His blood, for Baptists, it does not literally mean that it changes into His blood just as the cup of water, which David's friends secured for him in peril of their lives, represented to him. This is a contrast/ between the two churches.

A similarity between the Catholic Church and the Baptist Church would be that when they go to the table, they come not to remember a dead Christ; they expect to meet a living Saviour.

The purpose of Christ's death and resurrection was to make it possible for sinful man to be 'accounted as righteous' so that we can enter into His presence, not only in the spiritual sense but also in His physical presence.

Another similarity between the two churches is that when they look up, it reminds them of their relationship with the Lord Jesus. That we cannot do anything in our strength that we must die with Him in that we surrender our lives to His will.

A major difference between the two churches would be how the ceremony is organized in the Baptist Church. On the upper or lower platform there is usually a plain wooden table, some chairs, a lectern, some flowers and a screen with an overhead projector or a video projector. There are also microphones and other special equipment (like a television set and video), which are used during the service. The Roman Catholic Church has a more traditional ceremony and has a more frequent service than the Baptist Church. The Roman Catholic Church has a service every day when it is possible to receive Holy Communion whereas the Baptist Church has a service once or twice a month. Also the Baptist Churches ceremony may vary from Parish to Parish, to country to country but the Roman Catholic Church is almost the same from one Parish to the next. The Baptist Church has a more informal service. A communion service is a simple (and symbolic) meal sometimes called communion. Other Christian denominations have their equivalent of the communion service which they call mass or the Eucharist. But Baptists do not give the bread and wine special or mystical significance. We use them to represent the body and blood of Jesus and give thanks for what they represent. Unlike some Christian denominations, they do not believe that they become the body and blood of Jesus a teaching which they call transubstantiation. This is another major difference between the two religions. Another difference is that Baptist Church buildings will usually have a communion table which is a simple wooden table. It is not called the altar and has no special significance other than as a table! It is called a communion table because it is there to be used as a table primarily during a communion service. Communion tables often have Do this in remembrance of me carved on them that is, hold a communion service in memory of Jesus.

b) For individual members of each denomination, explain how the beliefs and practices you have identified would affect their lives.

In this section we are explaining how the celebration of Holy Communion for individual members from the Roman Catholic and Baptist Church have had their lives affected by their beliefs and practices.

Roman Catholics rely heavily on the mass and especially Holy Communion for guidance of their beliefs and practices in their everyday lives. Baptists on the other hand rely heavily on the scriptures to provide them with an interpretation of their beliefs and practices in their everyday lives.

Roman Catholics see taking the body and blood of Christ as a reminder that they need to follow his example and give thanks (meaning of the word Eucharist a thanksgiving meal) for the sacrifice Jesus made on the cross i.e. to save us from sin, allow us to reconcile ourselves and find a way back to God. This would encourage us not to sin, not to commit acts of evil against our fellow men To be 'the salt of the earth'.

Baptists while attaching different degrees of relevance and significance still give communion reverence to the fact that it reminds them of the Passion, death and resurrection and as a sign of their fellowship not only as a family but fellowship within the Christian community. Also as a family they believe in their personal subordination … that is to put themselves last in all things for the good of the family.

Both Baptists and Roman Catholics recognise their responsibility to the poor. The end of mass response 'Go in peace to love and to serve'. Baptists too believe in this and support Cooperative Program because 'If one part of the body hurts so close the whole body, the same comes, from being a member of the Christian body. Both Corinthians and Acts of the Apostles tells us about living out the faith in our lives can be done by helping the less well off.

'Love one another as you love yourself'. This is telling us that we should treat our neighbours, as we would like to be treated ourselves. It is the second most important commandment made by Jesus. The word 'Yourself' means one personally and also one family emphasising the idea of the Christian family.

Roman Catholics see beyond the 'bread' to the spiritual nourishment and satisfaction of having received the body of Christ. Although Jesus is not physically present in the bread and wine, He is spiritually present at the table. We read that the couple walking along the road to Emmaeus recognized Jesus in the breaking of the bread.

'When he was at the table with them, he took bread, gave thanks, broke it and began to give it to them. Then their eyes were opened and they recognized him and he disappeared from their sight.'

c) 'How a Christian treats other people is more important than whether or not he/she receives communion.' Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer showing that you have considered more than one point of view.

A Christian is a person who follows and hopes to practice the values and attitudes of Christ's teaching. These values and attitudes include being kind to others, helping other people, and trying not to sin. To Christians, Holy Communion has a special significant meaning. It tells us of how Jesus sacrificed his body, through suffering and death, on the cross, so that Man could be saved from sin, and that we could be reconciled with God the Father despite having sinned. For me, as a practising Roman Catholic, I believe that all Christians should receive Holy Communion. I believe that through receiving Holy Communion we are getting a part of Jesus' body and by taking the wine we are drinking 'His blood'.

Roman Catholics believe in 'Transubstantiation'. Transubstantiation is the belief that at the Eucharist, when the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, there is a change in the substance (real presence) of the bread and wine. Through receiving Holy Communion we are gaining spiritual strength from the Lord Jesus Christ. Holy Communion is a 'food' and by receiving it we are gaining links to our faith.

Some Christians however, fail to see the lack of importance of Holy Communion. Instead they favour other values and beliefs. E.g. The Salvation Army doesn't believe so much in outward signs and never celebrate Holy Communion. They believe helping others is much more important to live out the great commandment which commands love God and love your neighbour as yourself.

In the Methodist Church, Holy Communion is celebrated once or twice a month on 'Sacrament Sunday'. It usually takes place after the main service. Methodists call the Eucharist 'Holy Communion'. The service is led by a minister who says the Prayer of Thanksgiving over the bread and wine. This tells the story of the Last Supper and is taken from one of the Gospels 'this is my body. This is my blood'.

Anglican, Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians regard the Eucharist as their principal act of worship. The Eucharist is celebrated every Sunday, and often during the week as well.

Baptist, Methodist and United Reformed and other free churches may celebrate the Eucharist once or twice a month. Their worship is pulpit-centred and, therefore, the main emphasis of each service is on readings from the Bible and preaching.

The Salvation Army and the Society of Friends (the Quakers) do not have Eucharistic services. These Christians do not believe that outward symbols are important. They believe that the most important part of Christian worship is to accept Jesus Christ into our hearts. They honour Christ's sacrifice on the cross in the way they live their lives.

Conclusion

I feel that the statement that 'How a Christian treats a person is more important than whether or not he/she receives Holy Communion' is very much decided by the Church to which you belong or have been brought up in and I feel that despite some of these Churches not attaching the same importance to Holy Communion as I do they still exhibit the Christian values which Jesus wanted us as followers to aspire to. I think that in order to be called a Christian we must receive the sacrament Holy Communion. Without getting the sacrament I believe that we are not getting the spiritual strength, which Communion gives us. I think that through receiving Jesus' body in communion, it is giving us the strength to carry out his wishes and to honour the 10 commandments. Throughout this course, I have learnt that different Christians interpret the meaning and significance of Holy Communion differently. However, I believe that the Roman Catholic's interpretation for me, is the most important because I think that when we are receiving Holy Communion we are gaining a bit of Christ's body and when we are drinking the wine we are drinking his blood. I feel that this is bringing us closer to be united with God, in the Kingdom of God.

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Graphic Designer

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Kristy Valeriano

Richard Zimmer

Visual Communications Art 140

Graphic Artist/ Designer

Osamu Tezuka

Heralded by many as the God of Manga, Tezuka Osamu was one of Japans most cherished and prolific manga and anime artists. He has been described as the Japanese Walt Disney. He, perhaps more than any other artist, was responsible for the very characteristic puppy-dog eyes which has become a trademark of Japanese animation.

Dr. Tezuka did receive his medical degree from Osaka University in 146, though he concentrated on his career of choice the art of manga and animation. His most famous creation is probably Tetsuwan Atom, which has a large following internationally as AstroBoy. NBC later aired three of his TV series AstroBoy, Kimba the White Lion (which many have claimed as Disneys inspiration for The Lion King), and Princess Knight.

Inspired by his great love for cartoon animation, Disney in particular (its said he saw Walt Disneys Bambi 80 times), he set up Mushi Studios, his own production company, (161-17) which became a springboard for a number of influential animators who were to follow, including Katsuhiro Otomo (Akira). Unlike Disney which some people say has replaced its pioneering vision with a corporate mentality, Tezukas vision remained fresh. Osamu Tezuka gained popularity as a manga writer and illustrator up through the 150s. He is widely credited as the most influential animator in Japan. Tezuka's career parallels the rise of the Japanese animation industry.

His first production company, formed in 161, Mushi Productions, was later replaced by his namesake corporation, Tezuka Productions in 168. Dr. Tezuka was heavily involved with experimental animation, and had won several international animation awards, including the Grand Prix for Jumping at the 184 Zagreb International Festival, the Grand Prix for Broken Down Film at the Hiroshima International Animation Festival, and the CIFEJ award for Legend of the Forest at the 188 Zagreb International Film Festival.

The world has changed a lot in the past years. When Osamu Tezuka was stunning Japan with his Tetsuwan Atomu in 16, Japan was generally considered a place that copied American goods and produced cheap toys. The economic miracle still hadnt taken hold. On the whole, the country had not forgiven itself for events of the 10s and 140s. The destruction caused by the Second World War was not far removed from everyday life, and the atomic destruction of Nagasaki and Hiroshima were very fresh memories indeed. It was therefore a bold move as Tezuka, an established manga artist, told a story of the little robot boy with an atomic heart, disowned by his creator for the unpardonable sin of being a failure (he never grew), the little robot is rescued by people who care. They nurture and accept this heartless creature. These people were the advocate of the very race who shunned him and all his kind. In the 1st century robots are second-class citizens ... useful at times, but not imbibed with the same rights as people. In their gradual acceptance of Mighty Atom, they all become a bit more human. This show did something else pretty amazing too Producer Fred Ladd took a look at it and decided that it might actually sell over in America ... but the Japanese would have to make it more presentable to the United States.

Cells were added to censor the anime and the American money entered the project as Astro Boy was born. NBC had the rights, yet the T.V. station never aired it. With national syndication, Astro Boy became a hit, and inspired many of the First Wave anime fans (like myself). Then, as they do now, the US broadcasters complained about the violence in the shows, and that characters might actually die during the course of a story. This, as Uncle Walt had taught us, was a medium for children, and children could not be trusted with such an advanced concept as death. The Japanese were exposed to these stories more and it was not relevant to them. Therefore, the American audiences never saw the last episode.

Perhaps most surprising to many American fans, Tetsuwan Atomu was not considered to be Tezukas greatest work. His lifework Hi No Tori (Bird of Fire), runs from the distant past to the distant future, sadly it was not completed before his untimely death on February nd 18. Dr. Tezuka is best remembered for his little robot boy and his sister (interestingly, Atomu and Uran meaning atom and uranium). Some of his more experimental films like Jumping, Broken Down Film, Legend of the Forest, and his epic series about a little white lion with black ears ... a series which shares many elements with a Disney film from a few years ago. The lion in the US version of the series was called Kimba ... although his original name was Simba. Well leave you to draw your own conclusions, but Disney steadfastly denies that anyone based their story on the Tezuka classic. Some in the industry find this not to be a defensible position.

Shortly after the firestorm descended on Disney, the company took the position that it was largely unaware of Japanese Animation in general, and Tezuka in particular. Their animators were not influenced at all during the production of their own King-of-the-Jungle lion film. The scenes that were lifted from Tezuka splash panels were merely a coincidence. It was therefore a bit of a reversal when shortly afterward Disney and Studio Ghibli announced that Miyazakis back catalog of films would be distributed by Disney ... a company that was officially unaware of the medium.

Even before Tezuka's death, other powerful influences were making their marks with manga and television series. Eight Man (TOBOR, the Eighth Man), Kaitei Shonen Marin (Marine Boy), and Tetsujin 8 (Gigantor) all found their way to American TV in the 160s and very early 170s. Filling Tezukas shoes was probably impossible, but the Starving Seven (an artist hothouse project started by Tezuka) were each destined to make their own way in this fledgling industry. Members of this core group are still active today, but one of the first to break out and take the world by the horns was Liegi Matsumoto. His Space Cruiser Yamato (Star Blazers) triggered the Second Wave of fans almost by itself in the US, and many of us think that its only a matter of time before his presence is felt again in the animation industry. The Cockpit, gives very interesting insight about just how cool this guys stuff can be ... and were all just waiting for an announcement about some of his older stuff being revived as everything old is new again. While much of anime is geared toward adults, a great deal of Tezukas work seems to be directed at children. I think its safe for me to say that Osamu Tezuka was a pioneer in the anime world. He was an artist, writer/illustrator of comic books and comic strips throughout the 150s. Tezuka foreshadowed his own career by setting up comics to read like films. The National Museum of Modern Art in Tokyo held a public exhibit of Dr. Tezukas works in 10 -- the first ever for a commercial manga artist. April 4, 14 became a hallmark in manga and anime history. In his hometown, his fans drew his pictures on the wall its very popular among the people in his hometown. The Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum was opened in his hometown of Takarazuka, in memory of the father of anime.

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Alexander the great or Julius caesar, which army was the better fighting machine

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Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar were both military geniuses, but by Alexander's teaching, ambition and friendly conquering, it made him and his army a more effective and efficient fighting machine. From the time Alexander was born, he was destined for greatness. On the day he was born, things such as building caught fire. This was taken for depicting his destiny, showing that he would be strong and conquering. From the first time that Alexander set out for battle with Persia to his last fight, he was idolized. His was considered to be a god, but he still associated with his troops, when they had no water, he through his away. Julius on the other hand never physically entered battle with his troops, Alexander always led his troops at the front line. Even though these two men lived during different times, they each had some of the same characteristics. Both men were very ambitious, and well educated, each having been taught by some of the best teachers of the time. However each man had there own ideas for the new territory that they conquered. While one man tried to promote unity the other wanted to sole power.

Alexander and Julius had in common the same type of goals, however, they each had many differences. Even though some of their outcomes were similar, their methods of achieving them were very different. For example, each man wanted to be king. Julius wanted to be king so that he could be the only ruler and a tyrant. Alexander wanted to be ruler so that he could promote peace, live in unity with everybody and spread the culture of Greece around. Both of the two used their armies to achieve these goals, Alexander conquered most of the Middle East, while Julius controlled western and central Europe. It seemed harsh that Alexander would use a military force to unify Europe, however he would offer a sign of peace to any opposing forces before attacking. More often the not, captured slaves would want to stay under Alexander's rule rather then go back to there home land. When Alexander defeated Darius, he had captured Darius's wife and daughter. Alexander was known for his anger, but he could also be merciful. When a settlement would not willingly yield to his authority, he would take it by force. Yet when he captured Darius's wife and daughter he showed them kindness and not cruelty. In fact when they were given the chance to return to Persia, they had wanted to stay in Greece with Alexander. Julius, was ruthless, and if faced with the same situation as Alexander, he most definitely would not be as compassionate. An important factor as to why these men were both successful was also because of the ability to speak in large groups and win the respect of others.

Before entering battle, each gave a motivational speech. Alexander used his popularity and public speaking skills to motivate his army. He would lead by example, and taught his men bravery and courage. Julius was also an excellent public speaker, and used his skills to manipulate his army into fighting. He did this to motivate his army when they wee depressed or heading into battle. This was not common by a general, because of their speaking skills, however because Julius did not enter battle with his army it should his philosophy of how he thought he was better. Alexander would lead his men, this should that he had confidence in them to defeat opposing forces. This allowed for his men want to willingly fight for him and be motivated enough to conquer opposing forces.

Most of the time Alexander was largely out numbered, yet he was still able to defeat his enemies. His success lay in his tactics, particularly the phalanx. The phalanx allowed very little openings for his enemies to attack. Not only did Alexander have a strong infantry, but because he was well educated and knowledgeable, he understood how much a cavalry was important as an offensive weapon. Cavalry could also compensate for smaller armies such as Alexander's. Because Alex was so smart he could also adapt quickly to changing his strategies in the middle of battle. If he was not in front, charging towards his enemies, he would be over looking the fight, trying to make it in his favor. The phalanx was so effective because it allowed for maximum protection of the soldiers, while being able to win battles with ease. The soldiers were so close that each of their shields would protect them and the man beside them. They also carried large spears which would not allow for enemies to come close to them. Alexander was smart in choosing were to fight battles as well. If he was largely out numbered, he would force the fight in a small area so as not to be surrounded but to have one on one battle in which he would win.

An aspect of strength that was also important to an army was who it was allied with. Alexander had no allies when he was conquering other cities, and when in battle, Alexander had no friends or allies. Julius on the other hand had allies such as Pompey and Crassus who also had strong armies. This shows that Alexander could accomplish more on his own with fewer men. He was more efficient and had the ambition to conquer all of Europe, except his men did not want to continue forward. This showed that Alexander's ambition was very strong. Julius went to battle to defeat any threats to his power or that could over throw him. This shows that his ambition was different from Alexander's because he was ruthless, and was a dictator. This showed in their armies because they responded in the way that there leader treated them. Julius conscripted people to join, and they were often not happy about having to leave their homes for periods of up to a year. Alexander reformed the army, making it a job with benefits. This allowed people to be happy, which meant that they would fight willingly for Alexander. Because they were more willing to fight, they would be able to travel further without more nagging, this meant that they would be able to conquer more cities.

Alexander and Julius were both very smart, and were brought up in a similar lifestyle. It was there ambitions and destiny for them to both become leaders of there time. However, as leaders they both had different interests. It was because of their interest that made one army greater the other. Alexander's army was a better fighting machine because they were well taken care of, and led by a worthy man, who was a powerful leader. Their tactics were revolutionary, not allowing their enemies to even come close to them. Alexander never lost a battle in his time, proving that his army was superior to any other. Julius was a tyrant while Alexander promoted peace and unity. It was his ability to think quickly in battle, and his tactics such as the phalanx that made his army the best fighting machine.

Please note that this sample paper on alexander the great or Julius caesar, which army was the better fighting machine is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on alexander the great or Julius caesar, which army was the better fighting machine, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on alexander the great or Julius caesar, which army was the better fighting machine will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Japanese culture

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The first chapter I read in Global Society Introducing Five contemporary Societies, Third Edition by Linda Schneider and Arnold Silverman, entitled Japan A Conforming Culture, It appears on pages through 66.

Japan is a society in crisis. It is a culture that is highly resistant to change; a society that places a high value on each member's conformity within highly structured layers of Japanese society. Japan is an island nation, consisting of the four large islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. Together they are approximately the size of Germany or the State of California, and it has a population of approximately 16 million people ().

Japan has a large population in relation to its land mass and as a consequence most Japanese people live crowded together in an urban corridor squeezed along the eastern edge of the Japanese islands. A result of this crowding is that Japanese place a high value on public harmony and the avoidance of any conflict, especially in public. Japanese norms require people to be willing to apologize and humble themselves, so much so that even after a minor auto accident each driver will jump out of their vehicle and bow to each other and apologize, instead of risking a very public confrontation. Frequently, Japanese will also employ the use of a go-between to negotiate a possible marriage. In this way, an individual can turn down a bride or groom without rejecting them to their face, thereby avoiding open disagreement or embarrassment of an individual (11).

The Japanese are constantly reminded that their society is special, unique like no other, and are taught that the cultural homogeneity of Japanese society has a biological basis when in fact racial identity is a social belief and not a physical fact (). While the Japanese people are not a separate race they are indeed a highly homogenous society. The lack of internal dissent allows them to merge their concepts of race and nationality tofoster an unusually strong feeling of group solidarity and national purpose. Every level of Japanese society, from school authorities, to employers, government officials, parents and even media outlets reinforce the popular belief that Japan is special (10).

Japan has historically been an isolated nation; resistant to foreign influences. It has opened itself to the outside world only a few times in its history. A first great turning point in Japanese history occurred during the seventh century A.D., when Japan was still a tribal society and possessed a weak national government. Through hierarchal diffusion, a prince of the ruling family began importing cultural practices from China, studying Chinese government and elaborate bureaucracy, it's tax system and writing, even building Chinese-style cities as Japan had lacked even having towns. After 00 years Japan then retreated back to isolation in the ninth century, during which time the imported thoughts and ideas were slowly digested and given a distinct Japanese identity during its isolation that they then adopted as their own. It is important to understand that then and later, all of Japan's foreign borrowings were voluntary. Japan was never conquered or colonized by another nation ().

During a relatively open period in the early 1600's, Portuguese missionaries and traders were greeted with curiosity and interest, but the subsequent conversion of some 00,000 Japanese to Christianity by religious missionaries convinced Japanese rulers that things had gone too far and forced thousands of Japanese to renounce their religion or face execution. By 168 they had ejected most foreigners and re-imposed an isolation from the rest of the world that resisted change. Laws forbade the Japanese from building ocean-going ships or traveling abroad, and only a few foreign traders were allowed to enter Japan. This period of refusal and rejection of contact with the West is referred to as the Tokugawa era (4).

For most of its history, up until the Meiji Restoration, Japan was a society of hereditary status rankings it was a caste society, aristocrat and samurai, commoner or outcaste. People were born into the caste of their parents and there were rules regulating what members of different castes were permitted to do and wear, regardless of what his or her talents were ().

The first opening of Japanese society, commonly referred to as the Meiji Restoration, occurred in 185, when the American Navy under Admiral Dewey forced Japan to open it's ports to American ships and sign a series of trade treaties (5). When the Japanese leadership realized that Japan could only enjoy equality with western powers by modernization and the adoption of new technologies, the government, in effect, went on a world-wide shopping spree for new institutions to adopt. It found a model for it's navy in Great Britain, it's army in France, it's universities in America and it's constitution in Germany. In effect, Japan took the best ideas that would fit their society and adopted them as their own with some minor changes to suit them. This resulted in an unprecedented rapid industrialization and modernization of a nation that in only 50 years time enabled Japan to resist conquest by Western powers and even begin to launch their own imperial ambitions by the early 100's on nearby neighboring nations such as Korea and China that culminated in a surprising victory over Russian naval forces for control of Korea and other territories at the Battle of Tsushima in 105, with Russia being considered a major world power at the time (5).

Rising Japanese imperial ambition would eventually lead to a long, drawn-out war with China in the 10's that would ultimately escalate into the Pacific theatre of World War II with the United States, which led to the utter devastation of Japan by the end of 145 and subjecting Japanese society to reforms imposed on them by American occupation forces after the war. After World War II, defeat had destroyed Japan's industry and left nearly everyone destitute. The demoralized and disillusioned Japanese were open to change and ideas after the crushing defeat of Japanese militarism (6).

The second opening of Japanese society occurred after the defeat of Japan by the Unites States, ending World War II. Acting as Supreme Commander for the Allied powers, General Douglas MacAurther dismantled Japan's military, reformed its government and constitution, broke up industrial monopolies and redistributed land ownership. Individuals were given rights beyond what is guaranteed in the U.S. constitution, including equal rights for women, the right of labor to bargain collectively and the right of all individuals to an equal education. The occupation of Japan by American forces leveled many inequalities. (5).

This new combination of Western institutions and Japanese central government brought about Japan's post-war economic miracle. Japan rapidly rebuilt from wartime ruin and went on to develop cutting-edge export-oriented industries. Japan is a small nation, lacking in raw materials and energy resources. Yet, within forty years time the nation grew to become the world's second largest economy, exporting cars, radios, televisions, computers and other consumer electronics. Wages doubled and re-doubled, companies promised job security in exchange for worker loyalty and Japanese workers were content (6).

Japan today is suffering through a persistent economic crisis following the burst of the Japanese real estate bubble of the 180's. Unemployment has risen, many companies have gone bankrupt, prices are falling, stocks and real estate are losing value and consumer spending is down. The crisis has revealed links between the government and business that only serve their own needs instead of the citizenry as a major underlying economic problem. It has also become clear that many Japanese companies had really only been marginally profitable and had been riddled with waste and inefficiency. Banks were left holding nearly 600 billion dollars in bad loans that would not be repaid (6).

Some experts see this current crisis as evidence of a major change in Japanese society. They believe Japan's successful period of industrial expansion as being over and that the nation needs to embark on a new post-industrial society, a society so advanced that only a small percentage of its labor force is needed in manufacturing with the majority of workers shifting to service sector and information-based services. The problem is that Japan is still geared to industrial manufacturing production. Experts watching wonder if Japan will recover by following tried and true Japanese strategies or if it will begin a new radical social reconstruction via a third opening (8).

Japanese schoolchildren are taught that Japan is an island nation surrounded by seas and enemies, and that they must depend on each other. Though the world sees Japan as a global economic powerhouse, Japanese see their country as small and unprotected from assault. Japan is acutely aware that it has become highly dependent on the world economy. Japan has no oil, virtually no raw materials and must import vast quantities of meat and grain to feed itself, since the land is mountainous with only a small percentage of the land suitable for agriculture ().

Japan is a demanding society with very strong pressure to conform. Families, schools, and businesses all work hard to make sure their members learn the roles expected from them and to conform to them (6). In Japan people are managed very effectively. Deviating from accepted social norms is strongly frowned upon. The Japanese themselves say, The nail that sticks up, gets pounded down. Individual needs or wants are not encouraged in public settings. You can be certain that if you violate social norms in Japan, someone will notice and they will take action, and you will pay a price. Ridicule is a common sanction in Japanese society. Mothers commonly tell their children, If you do that, people will laugh at you. The children come to fear being laughed at or ridiculed, and this fear carries over into adult life as an important social tool to encourage conformity (0).

Japanese people value being part of a group. Groups figure very prominently in Japanese society. Group life without conflict comes first and people are expected to think of themselves as members of a group and any individual considerations are secondary (14). Japan conditions it's citizens beginning in school. The school system dominates the lives of Japanese children. In elementary and junior high school students are taught to see themselves first and foremost as a member of a group. One of the earliest groups they are members of is called a Kumi, or home room class. Each Kumi are encouraged to think of it's class as a collective home. Each action is shown to have an effect of others in the group, and each Kumi rearranges it's furniture, decorates the class and cleans the room with the teacher each day. The Kumi are further broken down into teams of students called a Han, with a leader being chosen called a Han-cho, whose primary duty is to lead the group in harmonious decision-making. Hans are expected to resolve conflicts and solve problems themselves without having to resort to the intervention of adults (0).

Decisions of a governmental or corporate issue are reached only after a long period of input, with every member concerned asked for their input and thoughts, which is typically in the form of a memorandum that is passed around that they can make suggestions on. No single individual suggests a course of action and the result of this is that there is no minority group to nurse a grudge, as everyone was involved and had agreed upon the decision that was reached. As a consequence, decision making is slow and cumbersome and in a crisis such as a major earthquake or financial panic, the responsible Japanese institutions can be frustratingly slow to respond.

During the 180's, Japan had one of the most profitable and efficient economies in the world. Japan exploded onto the global economic scene. The Japanese established themselves among the ranks of the United States and various European powers. But a long drawn out recession has forced Japan to make changes and pushed them back, out of the realm of being an economic superpower. This leaves me with just one question; when I look at Japan's strengths and weaknesses, is it likely for them to return to the economic status they enjoyed during the 180's? I think the answer is no. Because of Japanese false illusions, increasing national debt and deflation, it is unlikely that Japan will be able to make a full recovery to their former status.

Japanese labor management relations seems a facade to me. While Japan may not have unions like the Teamsters, every major corporation in Japan apparently has one, independent of other unions that may be doing the very same job but only at a different company. They are what I will refer to as a company union, for lack of a better phrase. The Japanese company union seems like a puppet to me, serving only the company interests, but since everyone in a Japan believes that to succeed they need to act together as a group and that only by being profitable can lifetime employment be ensured, they accept this. I feel that one reason Japanese companies lack the labor and management concerns that American corporations have is that the corporation CEO and executives in Japan do not make 100 times the money that the average workers do, as in the United States. But with the Japanese still struggling to recover after more than a decade of recession and layoffs that were previously unheard of before now becoming more commonplace, I wonder what the reaction of the Japanese worker will be when they realize that loyalty to the company will no longer benefit them. I wonder if Japanese labor relations will be become much worse than they are now and how they will be expressed in a society that values conformity and lack of confrontation, if they would even protest at all. I also believe that the overblown praise about Japan's lifetime employment system is a myth, given that it only applies to about a third or so of the Japanese workforce, namely the elite white collar workers and unionized blue collar workers in large companies.

I imagine that the Japanese have difficulty in seeing things objectively when Japan is involved. When things are going fine and dandy for the Japanese, the world is jealous. But when things go badly for them it suddenly does not concern them anymore. An example I would use would be when Japanese forces at the beginning of WWII were running rampant and initially defeating the enemy, their whole country rejoiced. But when the war was lost, it was the army that did it, not them. Japanese memories seem to me as though the Japanese woke up and went out to work one day and the atomic bomb was dropped on them all off a sudden out a clear blue sky. No pun intended. I wonder if the average Japanese citizen is informed about Japan's past and how it is presented to them. They seem to have a victim mentality when things go against Japan.

I wonder how in such a homogenous and close knit society just how racist the Japanese really are to foreigners. It seems to me highly unlikely I would run across anyone hollering racial epithets at me in public. I doubt I would run into any skinheads or men dressed in white sheets roaming the streets of Japan. It would have to be a more subtle racism but I am not familiar with how they would accomplish that. But since avoiding conflict and trouble is extremely important in Japan, they must use a more diplomatic approach than any westerner would be accustomed to, in that what is not said may be far more important than what actually is. Being complimentary and insulting at the same time, without a foreigner realizing it, must be a source of amusement to some Japanese.

It puzzles me how in such a homogenous and close knit society just how racist the Japanese really are to foreigners. It seems to me highly unlikely I would run across anyone hollering racial epithets at me in public. I doubt I would run into any skinheads or men dressed in white sheets roaming the streets of Japan. It would have to be a more subtle racism but I am not familiar with how they would accomplish that. But since avoiding conflict and trouble is extremely important in Japan, they must use a more diplomatic approach than any westerner would be accustomed to, in that what is not said may be far more important than what actually is. Being complimentary and insulting at the same time, without a foreigner realizing it, must be a source of amusement to some Japanese.

I got the impression from the reading material that while the Japanese stress harmony amongst each other it is ultimately only an image of harmony. What lies beneath the Japanese surface may be completely different. An image of the Borg aliens from the TV show Star Trek came to mind while I was reading about Japanese culture, with their single one-mindedness. And a phrase used by the Borg that they announce before attacking. You will be assimilated. Resistance is futile.

Please note that this sample paper on Japanese culture is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Japanese culture, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Japanese culture will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Collapse of the international economy during the interwar years

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The virtual collapse of the international economy during the interwar years can be attributed to the actions or inactions of the United States. The First World War was a major turning point in the economic history of the 0th century. Any victorious supremacy of Britain over Germany and the rest of the world was short lived and superficial. The belief that Britain could recover the enormous and devastating costs of the war through German reparations was quickly extinguished. Consequently, Britain was clearly no longer the leader of the international economy. Who would thus fill the void left by the former economic power? Who would provide the foreign investment to rebuild economies, who would stimulate trade through open markets and who would maintain international stability in trade, capital and labour movements? The obvious choice seemed to be the United States. But, it ignored the international economy in pursuit of its own self interest. Thus, no one filled the void left by Britain and the effects were devastating. From its failure to assume the role of world economic leader to the establishment of excessive trade barriers to the disorganized banking system, the Americans not only brought about their own demise but severely threatened the viability of the entire international economy.

The change in the economy of the United States after WWI was quite dramatic. It entered the war as the world's leading debtor and came out as the leading creditor and strongest economic power. It was in an ideal position to take over as world leader and reestablish the stability needed to recover and rebuild following the war. The level of government expenditure during the war was enormous. In fact, it totalled about $80 billion which was more than 6 times the world debt from 1800 to the onset of the war. By the end of the war, the world owed $11.8 billion to the US. Most of this debt came from allies such as Britain, France and Italy. How the US handled this repayment had direct consequences on the world economy. Britain recognized that repayment was difficult if not impossible and cancelled the debts owed to it. However, the US insisted on being paid in full and would not accept the transfer of debt as a method of payment. Furthermore, in 1 the United States enacted the Fordney - McCumber Tariff raising American tariffs to their highest level in history. These high tariffs restricted the ability of the debtor nations to earn dollars from which to make the interest payments on their American loans. Unable to earn enough through export expansion, these countries had to find short term solutions through further borrowing. The situation could not be prolonged for long and it soon became obvious that repayment was impossible. In response, the US cancelled about half a billion off the book debt. Even then only Britain could make the new payment. France and Italy were unwilling since they could not collect reparations from Germany. The insistence by the US that debt be repaid in full eventually led to an environment of bitterness and contributed to the breakdown of the international economy.

Besides starving the world of much needed capital, the US trade policies also had severe consequences on the level of world trade in the interwar years. Following the war, the US entered an era of protectionism. In 10, the effective tariff rate was a modest 6%. By 1, it had reached 15% with the Fordney - McCumber Tariff. But it was the imposition of the Smoot - Hawley Act in 10 that had the most damaging effects. The Act increased all duties but was especially high for agricultural products and manufactured goods. As a result, the effective tariff rate reached 0% by 1. The primary producing countries were already in a state of crisis because of the collapse of agricultural and raw materials prices. The Smoot - Hawley Act further reduced the purchases of exports and served to prolong and deepen the already existing depression. The concentration of duties on manufactured goods also had severe effects on may European countries, especially Germany. As they were already in default of new loans from the US, Europe needed to earn dollar surpluses to repay the loans. It could not export to the US, and third countries, who were in serious trouble themselves, responded to the US tariffs with their own tariffs on manufactures. Indirectly, the Smoot - Hawley Act made the situation of the European countries much worse through impeding demand for their exports. The US market represented a large share of world trade. In 11, North America had 11.5% of world imports. By 18, it had 15.%. Europe on the other hand had 65.1% in 11 but only 56.% in 18. The imposition of huge tariff rates thwarted the demand for agricultural products and manufactured goods and made the crisis more severe in many European and primary producing countries.

The weaknesses in the American banking system was also a significant factor in the decline of the international economy. As New York became a major international financial centre, international clearing became more complex and inefficient and foreign owned funds moved unpredictably. As well, New York was very inexperienced in distributing international securities to investors. Its money market was not responsive enough to changes in the balance of payments. These weaknesses were only fully realized when the American economy began to seriously decline in 1. Industrial production, prices and personal income from August to October decreased at annual rates of 0, 7.5 and 5 per cent, respectively. The ultimate result was the stock market crash in October. The numerous, small, weak banking units that were so popular in the US were unable to cope with the falling stock market values. The outcome was three surges of bank failures from 10 to 1 hat shook the entire economy. Over the three year period 8,81 banks failed. The actions of the Federal Reserve Banks during this period only exacerbated the crisis. They failed to use their money making powers and pursued completely inappropriate monetary policies. Thus, as the depression in the US deepened, literally all lending was eliminated and world trade dramatically declined. The result was a prolonged economic stagnation that reached all ends of the earth.

Even though a direct cause effect relationship between the actions of the United States and the Great Depression cannot be established, there is no doubt that the US set the stage for such an event and helped to prolong and deepen its severity. Through its insistence and pressure on allied countries to repay massive war debts, its refusal to provide any adequate amount of investment, its imposition of unbearable tariffs and the major structural flaws of its banking system, the United States failed miserably in acting as an international leader in any capacity. Beyond this, the movement towards protectionism and international withdrawl served only to facilitate and lengthen the Great Depression.

Please note that this sample paper on Collapse of the international economy during the interwar years is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Collapse of the international economy during the interwar years, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Collapse of the international economy during the interwar years will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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What impact do the mass media have on modern government and politics.

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The mass media is now a global phenomena and has revolutionised the way individuals communicate with each other and receive information. In this essay I will examine the three forms of mass media - newspaper, radio and television - and the way they have evolved. I will explain the three main theories relating to the impact of mass media on the public. I will then discuss how media has altered the emphasis of government at election time and on a day-to-day basis.

The term mass media embraces all kinds of information sources, such as books, pamphlets, mail circulars and films. The three principle sources of political information are however television, radio and newspapers. The mass media is a recent innovation which has reformed the way politics and government operates. Without newspapers, radio and pre-eminently television, the present political system could not work. The media are so omnipotent and all-pervasive we are often unaware of the addictive hold they exert over our attention and the messages they implant in our consciousness on a whole range of matters. Television is widely seen as the most important of the three mediums, and radio the least. In a survey relating to the 18 British election, television was cited as the most important media source by 6% of respondents, newspapers by % and radio by 4%.

Prior to mass media, communications was mainly verbal, between small groups, or by the church or political groups such as the Diggers or Levellers. The first medium to come about was newspapers at the end of the Nineteenth Century. These were largely unregulated and free to offer opinions and be openly biased. By the mid-Twentieth century, radio had begun to take over as the main source of information. Hitler was the first politician to exploit the potential of radio. In the United States and Great Britain, Roosevelt and Baldwin introduced the medium in a more gentle fashion. Radio was the much used medium during the war with things such as Churchills speeches. Television begun to make an appearance during the war, used to show films reinforcing patriotism and resistance. essaybank.co.uk

After the war, television took over as the main medium. Nixons Checkers speech in 15 is seen as the beginning of the television revolution. Ironically, television was Nixons downfall in 160 in the first televised debate, it showed that appearance on television is as important as the message.

There are three broad arguments concerning the effects of the mass media on the public and therefore government and politics - opinion forming, opinion reinforcing, and no effects. The opinion forming argument believes that the media shape opinions held by the viewer, since the media chooses the agenda, it also shapes what issues are thought about. This view depicts the viewer as having no or few opinions before media exposure and then accepts the arguments and opinions put forward. The opinion reinforcing argument believes that the viewer will be more likely to accept opinions similar to their own, than to change their opinion as a result of the exposure to the media. Persuasive communication functions far more frequently as an agent of reinforcement than as an agent of change. wwge gew esgeges ayge geba nge kcge geuk.

The no effects argument is a minimal effects approach, based on research of the elections in the 140s and 50s. It concludes that change in voting is not compatible with media influence. It appears that this study did little to look at other influences, such as partisanship or an individuals background. wwge gew esgeges ayge geba nge kcge geuk.

The strongest idea seems to be a mixture of reinforcement and opinion forming. In reinforcement theory, when people are exposed to the media reporting of politics, they are more likely to be confirmed in their existing beliefs than to be swayed and take on new ideas. This argument is supplemented by the idea that people are able to filter information. The three characteristics of filtering are selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention. wweg egw esegegs ayeg egba neg kceg eguk.

Selective exposure describes how many people avoid politics altogether, while others interested in politics will favour newspapers, television or radio programmes which reflect rather than challenge their views. Selective perception refers to the views and values which people use to edit information, accepting that which they identify with and rejecting that which they do not. Selective retention is the same process as perception but refers to what people remember. This process of filtering appears most identifiable in those who read newspapers in the United Kingdom, probably because newspapers are seen as the most biased and there is a large selection of them. wwec ecw esececs ayec ecba nec kcec ecuk.

The main distinction between reinforcement theory and the opinion forming argument is to whether a person has any pre-disposed ideas before media influence or if they are tabular rasa - blank, with no preconceptions. The opinion forming argument would state that all individuals must originally receive the information to base opinions on from somewhere - which is the role of the media. It also points out that the reinforcement theory does not seem to make sense in an age when party preferences have weakened and people are voting much more according to issues which they have learnt about through the media. It also asks that if the media only reinforces ideas and cannot form or change opinions, why do political parties persist in spending large sums of money in the media to get elected? Furthermore, why do some states feel it necessary to censor information not consistent with their ideology? Zp8R4 Visit essaybank fc co fc uk fc for more fc Do not fc redistribute Zp8R4

The reinforcement theory argues that people are capable of forming their own ideas based on the filtering process - they will identify with a given idea and then further exposure reinforces it. Individuals are never completely tabular rasa as this filtering process already exists. The political predispositions and group allegiances set the goal; all that is read and heard becomes helpful and effective insofar as it guides the voter to his already chose destination.

Blumler argues that both reinforcing and opinion forming ideas are at work, albeit with different people. He divides people into two categories, those interested in politics and those not. Those with an interest in politics have some underlying party allegiance and so will receive media information and filter out parts they do not agree with. With those with an interest in politics, reinforcement theory is more applicable. Those with no interest in politics are far less likely to have an underlying political allegiance and so will either filter out less or none of the medias message, so they are more responsive to the mass media. The problem for the media is to be able to gain the attention of the uninterested and get them to listen to the ideas. So for example, it can be masqueraded as entertainment or comedy - such as the Red Wedge comedians in the 180s who based their acts on a pro-labour party platform. This type of media is obviously opinion forming in intention but frequently, it is not able to change opinions as it falls on deaf ears. In short, mass communications are an inefficient technique for changing beliefs and behaviour, because, the message tends largely to be received by those who are already sympathetic to it and therefore least in need of change, and, ... for the remainder of the population the message is ignored, crowded out, by other more potent communications. wwbc bcw esbcbcs aybc bcba nbc kcbc bcuk. wwff ffw esffffs ayff ffba nff kcff ffuk.

The questions of why governments spend money on electoral campaigns and why others censor information set in the explanation of opinion forming theory can now be addressed. In response to the former, it seems governments advertise their policies as a way of trying to reach the uninterested or convince interested supporters who may be floating between the two parties and so prepared to listen to any communications. A response to the latter question appears harder. An argument could be made that those interested in hearing the communications are receptive to the information censored and would act if the information was available. Whilst the information is censored, there is no stimulus for action and so the government remains in power. The example of the collapse of the Soviet Union can be used to demonstrate the effects of the mass media being allowed to print what they wish after a long period of censorship. Berlatsky argues that the media held an important role, liberalism began to erode the Soviet system from inside and our press played all but the decisive role in the subsequent emergence of Perestroika. If Burlatskys argument is accepted, then the press was a main cause in the downfall of communism, then Gorbachev and finally the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the Soviet Union, once free from censorship, the press were allowed to print all the ideas and opinions which the public were receptive to but were previously not allowed to have. Following the information being made available, the public acted upon it and enacted change. In this instance, the media formed the opinions of those who did not have previous knowledge and reinforced the beliefs of those who did. This example shows what could occur if the press is not censored by a government who perceive it as a threat. It is interesting to note that during the failed coup of 11, the press were once again censored.

-------------------------------------------------------------The media so far has been portrayed as a passive actor in the political world. It must be remembered that those in the media also have objectives to achieve they must maximise their selling potential to increase profits, they may also subscribe to a particular ideology or set of ideas which it promotes in its reporting. These factors could be seen to lead to the media reporting in a biased way and not been totally impartial and factual. This, if the opinion-forming and reinforcing theories are considered, means that the public will hold views which are skewed without them realising. This point further emphasises the impact that the mass media have on government and politics and the potential it has to alter the outcomes of political events. wwfg fgw esfgfgs ayfg fgba nfg kcfg fguk

If it is accepted that the mass media have an effect on modern government and politics via the opinion forming and reinforcing of ideas, then it is necessary to examine what these effects are. There seems two distinct times to divide government action into at election time, and day-to-day running.

In the United States, electoral campaigning has incorporated audio-visual tools since 15 and has altered the way elections are fought. In 15, Eisenhower employed Thomas Rosser Reeves Jr who was a marketing pioneer. He simplified Ikes message so it was more understandable on the television and radio. He requested that Eisenhower never develop more than one category of arguments in any single speech, press conference or television appearance. Eisenhower also tried to make himself look younger and use speech notes rather than a fully written text. The democrats strategy with Stevenson was to have quantity rather than quality, unfortunately, all his half-hour broadcasts were shown late at night and so not many people ever watched them. The then candidate for the Vice-presidency, Nixon, made the checkers speech and firmly established television as a powerful political medium, wwde dew esdedes ayde deba nde kcde deuk.

156 saw the use of short advertising spots and negative campaigning. Based on the experience of 15 election, this new strategy seemed more appealing to the public and has remained since. 160, and the emergence of a candidate prepared to take acting lessons and a speechwriter, Kennedy came to victory with the model campaign. The first televised debate between Nixon and Kennedy is said by some to have made the difference between Kennedy winning and Nixon not. The first debate was watched by 70-75 million voters, Nixon had a knee inflammation and was physically worn down. Kennedy looked younger, tanned and more at ease on the screen. Nixons make-up also made him look like he had not been bothered to shave. Since Nixon missed the presidency by less than 100,000 votes, a ridiculously narrow margin on the scale of the United States, the first debate has generally been considered as the reason for his failure.

The campaign emphasises a shift from the public voting on issues and taking more notice of presentation and style. This shift to perception together with a simplification of the message can be attributed to the influence of the Mass Media.

The campaigns after 180 have taken on other characteristics such as the use of the photo opportunity - the candidate shown in a particular situation, for example, riding a horse or walking to or from a vehicle. However, the media is becoming more expensive. Since 180, nearly half of federal campaign budgets for presidential elections have been spent on buying television airtime. The reliance on television and its high costs has led the way for the likes of Steve Forbes (16) and Ross Perot (1) to become involved in Presidential elections without having a firm political base (for example, party or faction backing, political experience, or prior knowledge). Wealth has become a barrier to anyone wishing to become elected and a way for the rich to have a go. from www.essaybank.co.uk

Negative campaigning in the 180s went on more, the Bush campaigns of 188 and 1 were, ruthless, relying on vehement negative spots. The aim to deflect attention away from on candidate, and emphasise a trait or past experience of the other candidate which is likely to discourage voters from electing him. Although it worked for Bush in 188, it had less affect against Bill Clinton.

With day-to-day effects of the media, another American example - Ronald Reagan - shows how the right person can adapt and use the media to their advantage. Ronald Reagan was President from 181 until 18 and was the first President to complete the two full terms since Eisenhower (15-161). He came to the post with no experience of Washington, He was an ex-actor, an ex-professional after dinner speaker. He had no direct experience of national government before becoming President, and he had no experience of international politics. His use of photo opportunities, stage managed presentations and speeches broadcast by the media greatly enhanced his popularity and his ability to govern. wwfd fdw esfdfds ayfd fdba nfd kcfd fduk. wwba baw esbabas ayba baba nba kcba bauk.

Richard Neustadt comments that Reagans background in acting, use of charm, ability to appear concerned and dominate conversations with anecdotes which filled up time and prevented heated debates, raised his popularity and prestige with the public. The Great Communicator together with his Director of Communications managed to manipulate the media to their advantage. The advancement of technology, allowing live coverage of any event, allowed Reagan to be packaged in such a way so that he would be shown in a preferential light by the news hungry journalists. He also appealed to the people in prepared speeches, attempting to mobilise the public with varying success; early on having a bigger impact than later on. wwae aew esaeaes ayae aeba nae kcae aeuk;

The media with Reagan appeared to have an immediate impact which diminished over time. Reagans persona and manipulation of the media allowed him to come to power and remain fairly popular. Without the media, it seems hard to imagine the ex-actor gaining power or passing the amount of legislation he managed to do.

The mass media has had an enormous impact on government and politics. It appears that the media reinforces the opinions of some and forms the opinions of others. Using the examples of the USSR and USA, the media can be seen to have a direct impact in the way electoral campaigns are held and the day-to-day running of government. More emphasis is placed on the media by politicians and this leads them to incorporate it into their routine and try to use it to their advantage. The three theories discussed in relation to the effects of the media have different levels of credibility, the no-impact theory appears to lack any value, whereas the opinion-forming and reinforcing can be both argued to work. This has led some like Blumler to conclude that both are working, but on different people. The media has seen a rapid expansion over the last half of the twentieth century, particularly with television, it now shapes how government is presented to the public and therefore forces the government to accept the media and attempt to manipulate it to their advantage. As the example of the USA shows, it has caused speeches to become simpler, more focused on a single issue and be packaged in the correct way. The example of the USSR shows what can occur if the press are allowed to print what they will against a previously oppressive regime. What will occur to the media in the future is not known, but it can be certain that it will continue to have an impact.

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Animal Nutrition

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Omnivores, carnivores and herbivores all have differences in their feeding modes, and these differences are particularly seen in the jaw structure, muscles, dentition and gut of an animal. In this essay I will cover three different animals of mammalian nature.

The jaw structure of an animal plays a vital part in determining its eating habits. In an herbivore, the jaw is relatively long and tends to have a diastema, or toothless space. This is seen in a giraffe, they have a long lower jaw but no teeth at the front of it. Instead it uses a 46-centimetre tongue to wrap around the food and pull off the high branches of a tree. A giraffe is known as a ruminant, which means that they chew their food and swallow it, then regurgitate it back up again to chew some more, and repeat this many times, while being processed through it's four stomachs. They do this to break down the food as much as possible using the enzymes found in their saliva.

A carnivore, such as a lion, however, has a smaller jaw, but is hinged to open wider for large amounts of meat. They also have a small, or no diastema. The jaw of a carnivore allows for a large mouth capacity and they have no need to ruminate, because they do not have to break down cellulose, as it is protein that is found in animal meat. As a result, they tend not to chew very much, just swallow.

Omnivores are generally a mixture of both the herbivore and the carnivore. Humans are a good example of an omnivore. Their jaw is quite small but can open quite wide if needed, but humans chew before they swallow, and they do not need to ruminate.

There are two main muscles that are used in the biting and chewing of food in animals. These are the temporalis muscle, which is used for the biting (closing jaws quickly), and the masseter muscle, which is used for the chewing (helps to stabilise the jaw).

In all herbivores, the masseter muscle is a lot larger than the temporalis muscle, as biting is less important for an herbivore. This is because their food is usually not very tough to pull off a plant, so they do not need to viciously attack it to retrieve their source of food. Giraffes have very strong chewing muscles but relatively small biting muscles.

However, in a carnivore, the opposite is true. The temporalis muscle is larger than the masseter muscle because they need a fast, sharp and hard bite to bring down their prey. Lions bite their prey at the back of the neck to kill them quickly and easily with their sharp teeth before consuming all except the stomach of the dead animal.

Omnivores, like humans, have a pretty equal ratio between the temporalis and masseter muscles, so that biting and chewing play equal roles in an omnivore's diet.

An animal's dentition is dependant on the food that it eats. There are four main types of teeth an animal can have. They are the molars, pre-molars, canines and incisors, each with a different purpose. As a result, some of these are absent in different types of animals.

Giraffes do not have canines, but they do have a number of flat molars and pre-molars, which it uses to grind the plant material from its diet of mainly leaves. Sometimes they will have incisors to tear the leaves before chewing them. Some herbivores do have canines but they are generally used for show (primarily in the male of the species) or they can be used for breaking open nuts and fruit of plants for food sources.

In carnivores, they have small incisors for tearing, very large canines for ripping the meat of their prey and sharp pointed premolars and carnassials (modified molars with sharp points) to grind the meat further. In a lion, the lower canines are closer together than the upper canines, and the upper canines are the more powerful as the temporalis muscle controls them more than it does with the lower canines. We see that the teeth are designed for grinding meat into pieces that can be swallowed almost whole when ripped off the prey of the lion.

Most omnivores have a combination of all the types of teeth that are found in most animals. An adult human has eight incisors for tearing food, four canines for ripping food apart, eight pre-molars to grind some food, and twelve molars that are also used to grind the food that humans eat. The pre-molars and molars are large compared to the others and quite flat, whereas the canines are quite pointed and the incisors are flat but thin.

The type of food that an animal eats depends on the length and type of gut that the animal has. Some have a short gut because they do not need to break down certain substances, while others have longer guts because of the substances that take time to break down.

Herbivores are known to have fairly long guts for the cellulose in plant material to be broken down and utilised completely. In an herbivore like a giraffe, they have four stomachs that comprise around seventy percent of the total gut size. This kind of herbivore is known as a foregut digestion herbivore, and most of the digestion is done in the beginning of the gut. The pH of the stomachs is between five and seven, and along with the enzymes in the saliva, this is where most of the plant material is broken down. The small intestine of the giraffe is approximately ten to twelve times its body length and is quite thin. The caecum is not particularly long as it has done most of the digestion already and the colon (large intestine) is also not too long. Another type is the hindgut herbivore (like a rabbit) where most of the digestion occurs in the caecum and colon using fermentation to break down the food.

Carnivores have a relatively small gut length as they do not have the same need as the herbivores to break down cellulose. They just need to break down the protein found in the meat that they consume. The stomach capacity of a carnivore is about 60 to 70 percent of the total gut size and it has a pH of 1 or less. This is because the enzyme pepsin, which breaks down proteins, needs a low pH to be at its optimum. The small intestine is not that long (about three to six times the body length) but it is quite wide compared to the herbivore and omnivore. In a lion the caecum is possibly poorly developed or it may be absent altogether, and the large intestine is very short and simple.

In a human the stomach is only 0 to 0 percent of the total gut size, though it may be greater in some other omnivores. The pH of a human stomach is about two. The small intestine is ten to eleven times the body length of a human and some absorption occurs here. The most absorption of water occurs in the colon, which is relatively long and wide, and some bacteria fermentation occurs here for any plant material that is not broken down. The caecum of a human is poorly developed and they have an appendix, which the purpose of is not known as of yet.

When deciding whether an animal is a carnivore, herbivore or omnivore, there are a number of different factors that can be looked at to decide, without actually knowing its diet at that stage. Some of these factors are the jaw structure of the animal, the muscles sizes of the animal, the dentition of it, and what kind of gut system it has. We can see that herbivores are usually the opposite of carnivores, and that omnivores are a mixture of the two, this is especially seen when we compare the dentition and gut systems of the three.

Please note that this sample paper on Animal Nutrition is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Animal Nutrition, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Animal Nutrition will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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