Home Schooling

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When one thinks of education, almost automatically public education comes to mind. Through the years, preferences for educating children have slowly been changing. Home schooling was primarily restricted to religious groups, but in the past several years, it has rapidly been moving into mainstream society (Ray). Parents today are deciding to home school their children, although there are those who still believe public education is better. Home schooling is legal in every state and involves as many as 1.5 million children (Wingert & Katrowitz). Critics of home schooling raise questions about academic and social issues. Parents of the home schooled maintain they are not valid. Home schooling is overall more beneficial than public schools in the education of children.

The idea of home schooling first became popular in the 160's and 170's in religious and hippie communities in an attempt to train children in their values. However, in many states home schooling was illegal until a court battle in the 10's legalized it. Since that time, this type of education has been growing worldwide. In 18, it was estimated that about 1.5 million children were being home schooled. By 000, the estimate changed to 1.7 million children (Ray). In addition, the reputation of home schooling changed considerably. In a survey conducted in 18, 5 percent of the respondents showed evidence that home schooled children were well adjusted socially and performed on standardized tests as well or better than students in public schools (Wingert & Katrowitz).

Critics attack home schooling on many fronts, arguing that qualified professionals do not teach children and homes often do not possess the same qualified resources of public schools. Even though educational resources and opportunities for home schooled youngsters are not equal, home schooled students continue to learn and make academic gains in a safe academic environment. They benefit from many advantages. There are the advantages of flexibility of instructional time, multiage grouping, cooperative learning for mastery and small class sizes as compared to students in a public setting (Ramanowski). In some states, public schools form partnerships with home school educators providing the use of public school libraries and computers. Resource centers have been established for parents and families to facilitate independent study programs to obtain books and other materials. Therefore, home schooled children are thriving with the arrival of improved technology and personal computers. They are no longer entirely dependent on parental education and their personal teaching skills or qualifications (Wichers).

Another criticism of home schooling was that regular evaluation of children's learning rarely occurs in the home setting. The Ohio Department of Education reported that home schooled students were tested by a certified teacher to track their academic progress. The research was assembled to evaluate many different aspects of home schooling, but the focus was on academic competency. The report used data from the National Home School Legal Defense and the Home Research Institute. It found that home schooled students' average score was between the 65th and 80th percentile compared to 50 percent of the public school population. (Wichers).

Research shows that home schooled students score above average on other standard achievement tests. One logical reason being these students received more one-on-one instruction. The Ohio Department of Education reported that 80 percent of home schooled children across all age groups achieved individual scores above the national average on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (Wichers). Reports from Boston University stated that students educated at home possess a passion for knowledge, independence, and self-reliance that enable them to excel in intellectually challenging programs of study (Romanowski). Lastly, several studies of cognitive and affective development in home schooled students consistently found that achievement scores on standardized tests were slightly higher for home schooled students than their peers in public schools. The example cited was on the Stanford Achievement Test used in Washington State for three consecutive years. When the scores were compared to national norms, home schooled students; for example, scored above the 60th percentile in math, science, and verbal skills tests (Latham).

ACT scores by home schooled students give the concept of home schooling integrity to be recognized as a successful educational method. Billups reported that home schooled children placed first on one college-entrance test for three consecutive years. These students scored higher on the ACT than students who attended public schools. The ratings on the score are 1-6, with 6 being the highest possible score. Home schooled children's average score was a .8 compared to the national average of 1. In addition, Rudner's research did find that homes schooled students did well on the 18 ACT scores too. This evidence further supports the fact that strong dedication to education through home schooling will obtain a flourishing academic future.

It is not a disadvantage to be from a home school environment when seeking admission to a college. Home schooled students have little difficulty being accepted into colleges and universities. Estimates indicate there are about 00,000 home schooled students in college now (Klicka). These students are being actively recruited for their abilities. Universities report that home schooled students are sought for their higher ability to read for comprehension. In addition, they know how to access and use information. Their continual commitment to education, is a good indicator of their success in academics going into higher education settings (Wichers). The comprehensive support system that home school families have, achievement scores, the skills that they develop and draw on, make them feasible contenders for higher education and academic excellence.

Another argument against home schooling, after the quality of education, focuses on isolation and lack of development of adequate social skills to enable home schooled young people to interact effectively with others later in life. Opponents believe a home schooled young person does not gain essential socialization skills and learn how to get along with others while in a home school setting. To the contrary, most home school families belong to at least one support network. Home schooled students form their own social clubs like their own sports teams to 4-H Clubs. Some students get together and go on field trips too(Wichers).

Many families who home school their children form communities of support groups to lessen isolation. They strive to gain information about curriculum standards and to provide materials and information about the legal aspects relevant to home schooling. As a result, it was learned that families were then able to incorporate this information into their individual lifestyles, values, and family goals as it relates into their child's curriculum as they educated them. It was then noted that children worked harder to fulfill social and academic expectations because of their supportive environment (Wichers). Rudner's study confirmed the fact that dedication, support, and resources weigh heavily on successful academic achievement.

In the same way, other studies indicate the social development of home schooled students is more advanced than that of public school students. One study used the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scare with home school students from the 4th to 1th grade. They scored higher than public school students. This fact indicates home schooled students have higher self-concepts. Self-concepts reflect socialization, which points toward the conclusion that they are not socially deprived (Latham).

In addition, children taught at home tend to have stronger relationships with their parents. This occurs because they usually spend an average of two to three hours per day receiving direct instruction. The typical public school student spends more than two hours a day on lunch, recess, and changing classes (Russo). Home schooled children spend more time on improving their strength, working on their weaknesses, while building positive relationships with their family members. Other social factors in favor of home schooling are children often become more independent and more responsible with their behavior, it decreases the influence of peer pressure, and trips are planned at the families' convenience, so children spend more time with the family (Latham).

In conclusion, home schooling is not for everyone. Families must make important choices about their time and desire to take full responsibility for the education of their children. The point is that for those who are able to follow this system and stick to it, they can provide a better education than the public schools. Another note worthy point is not whether this method is the best approach, but the willingness to recognize that home schooling is working and a better choice than public education in many areas. The data does not lie. Home schooled young people are scoring higher on standardized tests and achieving in college with socially acceptable interaction in today's society. Home school achievers are challenging the old stereotyped opinions that home schooling is considered a last chance choice for those without aspirations and the antisocial.

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Weekly Summary

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Once the first initial week that felt like pure chaos was over, I have settled my nerves and managed to prepare my mind and body to absorb and remember every piece of information that I can.

After completing this week's reading assignment in Peak Learner, I have learned a great deal about myself. Finding out that I was a Stringer rather than a Grouper came as no surprise. I always knew how I preferred to learn a subject, but I never really realized how I could get the most from it.

This week was a little stressful for me. I was not able to get together with my teammates, as I preferred. I think it would have been easier for me if we could have put a little more effort into communicating about our assignments. The Little, Brown Book search activity was not a problem, but I was pulling my hair out by the roots over the outline. For the first couple of days of this week, there was hardly any contact among the four of us. I had a brain cramp, and I did not have a clue of how to begin the outline. At this point, we have not even discussed which topic we were going to outline. Nevertheless, in the end we were able to pull all of the pieces together and accomplish our goal.

I did realize, however, that working in a team that consisted of different styles of learning, and personalities is very challenging. There are different views on how a person thinks a task should be accomplished. You may not agree with their point of view, but you have to manage to come together to discuss the possibilities, compromise, and get the job done. It takes much effort and patience to be a team player and discuss things openly.

I also realized that I could function as a Grouper and still achieve the task presented to me in a manner that suited me. Knowing that I can adapt to, and obtain different learning styles has peaked my enthusiasm even more.

I have become a Peak Learner, and I am ready for what week three has to offer.

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An Indian Wedding in America

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An Indian Wedding in America

The weekend of October 8 my whole family went to Detroit. We visited a friend who had a new baby and then went to the wedding of a friend.

For starters Ekta came to Michigan tech as a student, we met her because she agreed give Rachna dance lessons. Through her personality and demeanor she played a very impressionable role in our young daughter=s life and has a very special place in our hearts as well.

Ekta and her groom Rajan both hail from the India so the crowd was predominantly Indian but there were people from many backgrounds. Many people had flown from all over the world for this occasion. Amit (Ekta=s older brother) told us that there were people from 4 continents at the wedding. We were welcomed and respected by our hosts, warmly and honestly.

It was a traditional Hindu wedding, A rich and unbelievable occasion to which I could never do justice. It was overwhelming to see a wedding of this caliber and detail taking place in America.

The whole weekend triggered a number of thoughts, several of which seemed worth sharing.

First was the energy and exuberance of the celebration. There was a sense of joy in every aspect of the weekend. The night before the wedding. The Mehndi and sangeet function a well organized social with delicious Indian food ( I have to list it) Pav Bhaji, Pulao, Raita, Bhel and all the toppings to go with it, The pedas and the Gajar Halwa. There were two ladies putting Mehndi for anyone who wanted. The singing and the dancing went on for over five hours. The highlight of the singing was Ekta=s great uncle who had flown in for the occasion. A gentleman in his 80s. When he stareted singing his voice electrified the whole place. It was amazing!. One of the grooms friend also sang a english song reminding us all that we were among friends in America.

The morning of the wedding dawned and we made our way to the wedding hall. As we entered the hall we were amazed by the traditional decorations of the place. Complete with flower garlands,a Mandap, and a Doli In AMERICA! WOW! . Each table had a very traditional centerpiece of coconut annd flowers. The whole place looked beautiful. Then the Baraat arrived with the groom sorrounded by family and friends dancing to the music as they made their way towards the entry hall where the brides family and friends were waiting to welcome them all. After the Jayamala the priest started preparing the lagan Mandap for the invocation of God and all the guests were asked to have breakfast which consisted of Ganthia (farfari) jalebis, ( These two are a popular breakfast item in Gujarat I was told) Strwberry tortes and various types of baklavas. To drink there was Thandai, Coffee and Masala tea.

Then the ceremony started the bride walked in with her maternal uncle to the age old song ABaharon Phool barsaoo@ Ekta looked just beautiful! Luckily for those of us who did not understand the ceremmony too well a handy guide to the ceremony was handed out. During the ceremony there were ladies singing live the approraite traditional songs at the appropriate times. Accompanied by the traditional Indian instruments. When the cremony was over the vidaii took place and Ekta was carried out in the doli with Rajan walking next to her. There Go Mr. & Mrs. Popet I said to myself as the very emotional song ABabul ki Duaen Leti Jaa@ echoed in the hall. Everyone was then invited to have lunch ( Yes the ceremony took that long). For Lunch there was Chole. Avial, Daal, Rice, Puris, Raita and barfi and various mukhwas. After witnessing all the sets of prayers chants and promises I thought ANo wonder Indians get married only once@.

About 4 hours later was the Reception . We walked into the reception hall and were awe truck by the ambiance, the chadeliers were exquisite, the tables were elegantly set and the highlight was the Ice sculpture of Lord Ganesh sitting in a bowl of Ice with lights, it was an awesome and Striking sight! There was the punch fountain with a mango punch in it and mango lassi and of course the bar was open for all other drinks. The guests were invited to have appetizers which consisted of Mutter cutlets, stuffed puff pastry, chole chaat and fruit. After a little while the DJ beckoned everyone to take their seats and then the doors opened and in walked the Bride and the Groom. Ekta looked lovely and Rajan looked Very Elegant. there was a thunderous applause as they made their way to the head table.

After some words from various people from both the families and a very humorous and entertaining episode from Rajan=s brother-in-law Mike Lewis. The cake was cut and Dinner was served. Dinner AAHH! There was Malai Kofta, Daal Makhani, Nargisi Aaloo, Bhindi Masala, Raita, Naana and Paranthas, Rice, Salad, Chutneys and Pickles. There were five Desserts as tradition demands, these were The cake, ras malai, Gulab jamun, ladoos and I forget the 5th one but it was there. After everyone was done eating and starting mingling the Grooms mother went around and gave everyone a wedding souvenir.

Then the floor was cleared and the bride and groom had their dance an American tradition but they danced to an Indian song.( Unity in Diversity I thought) After two more slow dances the music kicked off and provided hours of dancing for everyone still capable walking.

This is when the second thought hit me. This wedding though dignified in every aspect. Was hardly a 000 year old relic; The participants and the guests all had genuine fun.

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Being a leader

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In our life, it does not matter where we live; we always are surrounded by leaders. In society there are leaders which become leaders because of a certain set of circumstances, or there is some other process that accounts for this. But I believe there are leaders are born with inherent qualities that make them effective leaders. In my own view, there are three characteristics of effective leaders which I consider a foundation. I believe these essential leadership characteristics are choices that we make. Effective leaders are passionate, authentic, and courageous.

Anyone can become a leader, but not everyone strives to reach such a status. In a group of people, one will be identified as a leader and the others will become followers. The true leader will rise from the recognition of others and by actions towards the audience's interests, understanding of human nature and contribution to society. J. Gardner, the author of The Nature of Leadership states that Leaders come in many forms, with many styles and diverse qualities. There are quiet leaders and leaders one can hear in the next country. Some find their strength in eloquence, some in judgment, some courage (J. Gardner 4). But what does it takes to be a leader? I believe that purpose and passion go hand in hand. To be an effective leader, you must first care. When you care deeply, you have a passion that is more than simply the spark that gets you started; it is the fire inside that will sustain you. An example that we can talk about is

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Thomas Jefferson. He had a passion to be in the public in front of the audiences; a passion to prove to his audiences of who he was, as being a leader. J. Gardner said that, Thomas Jefferson was a man of natural aloofness who lived most of his life in public; a man of action with a gift for words and a bent for research; an idealist who proved himself a shrewd, even wily, operator on the political scene. Different sides of his nature came into play in different situations(). Thomas Jefferson cared for his audiences. Therefore, being close to his audiences was a chance for him to know what his audience want in the society; and let his audiences being closed to him was their chance to understand, and trust him that he will be their right leader.

Another person that we can talk about is Eleanor Roosevelt, a woman with great sensitivity to the underprivileged of all creeds, races, and nations. She had a passion to help those people that were less fortunate. Roosevelt truly cared about people, and she particularly cared about the dispossessed, the marginal, and the unentitledblacks, inhabitants of the third world, young people, Jews, women (H. Gardner ). Like Thomas Jefferson, Eleanor Roosevelt also had a passion cared for her audiences. With passion toward her audiences, avoided the consequences, she risked her life to help her audiences during the bad time in their life. Passion is not the same as a single-minded determination to get what you want or to create the changes you think should be made. Rather, passion for a higher purpose is characterized by an openness to possibilities, and the innate belief that people want to work together to create the best future imaginable.

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To be authentic is to be honest. From my perspective, this means being who you are, all of the time. You must have heard the phrase honesty is the best policy. However, what I want to say here is that honesty is not only the best policy, but it is the easiest and most effective way to communicate. Being a leader is being a role model for your audiences. If you open yourself and let people trust your actions then your words are very significant. Just as Gardner said, Leaders discover their audience and as their audiences began to discover them, a delicate and elaborate set of interactions commenced(16). If you express yourself openly and truthfully enough, it does not take long for your audiences to discover who you are, thus it will build up the trust that your audiences have for you, as their leader.

In my own view courage is a very significant part of leadership. By many definitions, leaders are courageous by nature. They help inspire and guide their audiences toward new vistas, through tough times and over seemingly undefeatable hurdles. The first step to harness your courage is to develop a vision that represents your authentic self and goals. Keshavan Nair states that, The greater the identification, the more courage you will have. When you identify yourself with your belief of what is right, you will have the courage to do it (Nair 10). Courage is what you believe in yourself. I believe being a leader, it not only takes courage to fight for your audiences, but it takes courage toward facing the consequences also. An example is a story about Rosa Parks. She was a colored woman who sat in the non-color section of the bus and refused to move to the back where colored section was supposed to sit. To many colored people, Rosa Parks was

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their leader. Each of us must have courage and take some individual responsibility for removing injustice if we want to improve the standard of leadership(10). Even though

Rosa Parks knew something might happen to her if she did not follow the rules, but for the rights of the non-colored people, she did anyway, without afraid or worry about the consequences of her life. Even though years and years have passed, a name like Rosa Parks and her story still live in her audience's heart. She was a leader, a hero with full of courage that some how make a difference in her audience's life.

Another story that we can also refer to is about Harriet Tubman. To many people, Tubman is a leader. She lived her life with full of courage and was not afraid of anything. Susan Griffin states that, She was beat by a white man and she lived and she lived to redress her grievances, and she lived in swamps bringing hundred of fugitives from slavery, and led an army, and won a battle, and defied the laws, because the laws were wrong (Griffin 1). It took courage for Tubman to live and live and fight for the rights of other people. She had her own believe to do what was right, and did not afraid of the law at all. Harriet Tubman, Rosa Parks, and like many other leaders that throughout their lifetimes they may see little result from heroic efforts yet may be setting the stage for victories that will come after them. Many of the changes sought by leaders take time lot of years, long public debate, and slow shifts in attitude. (J. Gardner 6). While these leaders still living, it takes a long period of time for them to see the changes that they did for their audiences. But years later, they did not have a chance to

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realize what they have done could change society for the better of their audiences, that made history.

When writing about courage, it makes me think about my mother. Before the Vietnam War started, my father was a leader of the Southern part of the Vietnam army. But everything began to change when the communist took over, and they took my father into prison. My father left behind his young wife and an innocent newborn child, my sister. For days, months, and years my mother was waiting for her husband to return home, just as a dry season waiting for a heavy rain, but there was not a sign of her husband anywhere. The clock kept ticking, the days silently passing by, yet the women did not give up her hope. Without her husband home, my mother was a leader, a head holds of a family. She had to raise a young child alone, without knowing whether or not the father of her child was still alive or not. I always believe and feel proud of my mother, a woman who was so full of courage and managed to live alone with a young child to wait nine years for her husband to return home.

My father, to be a leader of one part of the country was hard. Especially when losing a battle and lost freedom for Southern part of Vietnam was a huge responsibility. Still to this day my father could not over come the situation. My father was a leader, part of my country who has courage to risk his life to protect part of our country. He had courage to live so he could be united with his family, even though being a prisoner over those nine years was very torture for my father.

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Being a leader, it will take a very long period of time. It might be just a few years to be what kind of leadership one wants to be, or in the other way around, it might takes longer than that. Being a leader, one do not have to have a high education, but with passionate, authentic, and courage, a leader will accomplish their goal, just as Harriet

Tubman, or Rosa Parks. With passionate, it will push leaders to achieve their dream. With authentic-to be honest, truthfully, leaders will wins their audience's heart. With courage, leaders will win the battle. Throughout their lifetime, they might not realized the differences that they did for their audiences, but what they have done will made history and will never be forgotten in our heart. Yet, they were leaders without any high education at all.

Works Cited

The Nature of Leadership, John Garder

(Reprinted from On Leadership, Macmillian Press, 10)

The Essential Quality Courage, Keshavan Nair

(Reprinted from A Higher Standard of Leadership Lessons from the Life of Gandhi, Bantam Books, 17)

I Like to Think of Harriet Tubman, Susan Griffin

Eleanor Roosevelt Ordinariness and Extraordinariness, Howard Gardner

(Reprinted from Leading Minds Anatomy of Leadership, Harper Collins, 15)

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What is a Local anaesthetic?

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Local anaesthetic agents can be described as drugs which are used clinically to produce reversible loss of sensation in a circumscribed area of the body. At high concentrations, many drugs, which are used for other purposes possess local anaesthetic or membrane stabilising properties. These include Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists, opioid analgesics, anticonvulsants and antihistamines. Most of the clinically useful local anaesthetic agents consist of an aromatic ring linked by a carbonyl containing moiety through a carbon chain to a substituted amino group.

There are classes of local anaesthetic drugs defined by the nature of the carbonyl-containing linkage group. The ester agents include cocaine, procaine, amethocaine and chloroprocaine, whilst the amides include lignocaine, prilocaine, mepivacaine and bupivacaine. There are important practical differences between these two groups of local anaesthetic agents. Esters are relatively unstable in solution and are rapidly hydrolysed in the body by plasma cholinesterase (and other esterases). One of the main breakdown products is para-amino benzoate (PABA) which is associated with allergic phenomena and hypersensitivity reactions. In contrast, amides are relatively stable in solution, are slowly metabolised by hepatic amidases and hypersensitivity reactions to amide local anaesthetics are extremely rare. In current clinical practice esters have largely been superseded by the amides.

Their Mode of Action

Combination of weak base and strong acid. Hydrolysis in tissues at weak alkalinepH results in liberation of active free base which is then taken up by lipid around nerve. Basic action is to stabilise nerve membrane. Reduces Na+ permeability and thus prevents rise in intracellular Na+ needed to propagate action potential.pH 7.4B.HCL + NaHCo ¨ B. + NaCl + HCo

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The Hollow Men Flames and Dangling WireThe Valley of the Ashes Extract from Gatsby How does the form of these texts affect the way that humans are depicted in the particular environments presented in the texts?

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on The Hollow Men Flames and Dangling WireThe Valley of the Ashes Extract from Gatsby How does the form of these texts affect the way that humans are depicted in the particular environments presented in the texts?. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality The Hollow Men Flames and Dangling WireThe Valley of the Ashes Extract from Gatsby How does the form of these texts affect the way that humans are depicted in the particular environments presented in the texts? paper right on time.

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The Hollow Men

Flames and Dangling Wire

The Valley of the Ashes Extract from Gatsby

How does the form of these texts affect the way that humans are depicted in the particular environments presented in the texts?

All three of these texts depict a very bleak,desolate, and bland human environment. They describe a boring dumpyard in flames and dangling wire, a grey polluted city in the valley of the ashes extract, and from my impression in hollow men, a wide open abondoned space that once was thriving but now has crashed to nothingness,.

In the Hollow Men, I get the impression of a very meaningless environment. The scarecrows are 'hollow' which says there is no meaning in their life, they just stand together for an eternity serving no purpose on an abandoned farm. The scarecrows are also 'stuffed' which says to me that they have no hope of any sort of revival back to their old times, but are stuck the way they are for the rest of time. This poem depicts the abandoned fields, but these are part of a much greater abandoned kingdom, which also was once big and thriving, but has been abandoned. It is now a big empty meaningless space. It appears to me that there was once a battle in this space, to fight this large and powerful kingdom, and this kingdom was beaten, and has now died.

The quote ' this is the dead land, the cactus land....a dead mans hand' says that once there were people inhabiting this space, but now it has turned into a cactus land- a desert, very plain, empty, and desolate.

'This is the way the world ends not with a bang but with a whimper'. It appears that the kingdom hasn't died quickly and painlessly, but rather has died slowly. Maybe this kingdom was under siege, supplies ran out, so they died a very slow and painful death. However, this seems to be the only poem of the three that has hope for its environment. 'Sunlight on a broken column' indicates that the kingdom may be broken and down, but they are not out. It implies that there is still a slim chance that the kingdom may reignite and come back to life. 'Sightless, unless the eyes reappear...the hope only of empty men' also supports this, by saying that the kingdom has been blinded to what is going on around it, but the hollow men still have some hope, even though they are the only ones left.

'The valley of the ashes ' is described also as a very desolate area of land. It is describing the inner city next to a motorway, in a very urbanized environment. It describes an extremely bland environment, with people going to work all in the same drab, dark and grey clothes. All the houses look the same - grey, with chimneys smoking, polluting the air. Pollution from all the cars, and smoking chimneys also makes the air grey, which ads to the great dullness of the environment. It also describes the cars as being all very boring and similar. This adds to the vivid picture of dullness and greyness. The valley of ashes also has a murky, polluted river running next to it. The bridge across it has to go up to let barges through every so often, so passengers in trains and in cars mus sit there waiting to get across the bridge. While they do this they have no choice but to stare at the valley of the ashes and take in the grey and boring environment. Traffic jams also ad to the bleak area, with grey monotonous trafficmoving along, uninterested in any of the surroundings, only anxious to get to their boring work environment, as not to be late.

Flames and Dangling Wire depicts a wasteyard, where rubbish is burnt off with fires. This depicts humans in their environment dealing with drab, boring waste. In the background of the dumpyard is an urban environment of buildings. 'Standing where I am (the dumpyard) I see the mirage of the city. This compares the two, saying that there isn't much difference. They are both grey, boring and dull. They are both environments with humans, but these humans are bored, and similarly to hollow men, don't have much meaning in their lives. 'I reangling wires from the radio, which have once transmitted voices which are still travelling, gives me a great sense of timelesness in the poem.

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The Reign of Terror

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Imagine you are writing a study of The Reign of Terror. In the form of a short essay (not more than 00 words) answer the following questions

What kind of primary source is this, and what strengths and limitations does it have as a source for a study of The Reign of Terror?

Identify any particular words and phrases in the document that require elucidation or special comment before you can make use of it.

What can you learn from this source with respect to The Reign of Terror? You should distinguish between the witting and the unwitting testimony.

1

The document is a translated extract of the first two articles from the Law of Suspects, passed by the Convention on 17 September 17. Article 1 declares that this law comes into immediate effect and that suspects, who are still at liberty, will be placed under arrest. Article defines six categories of suspects and how they are to be identified. The document carries the authority of the Convention and all in the Republic are held to be subject to this law.

The dating of the legislation is significant for two reasons.

First, it marks the beginning of what was to become The Reign of Terror, specifically the Jacobin led Red Terror of 17-174 which was characterised by the persecution of royalists and traitors. In that respect the law may be seen as a catalyst for what was to follow.

Secondly, within the context of the months prior to the publication of the law, it needs to be recognised that this was part of a series of emergency legislative acts designed to counter perceived threats to the Revolution. During 17 France was in near chaos, waging war with Britain and Spain and engaged in an internal power struggle between the Jacobin led Convention (claiming the support of Paris and the proletariat masses) and the Girondin , federalist and counter revolutionary factions. Consequently, the following emergency measures were taken. The establishment of a Revolutionary Tribunal, from which there was no appeal, in March 17. In the same month the Committee of General Security, a division of the secret police, came into being. In April the Committee of Public Safety, a twelve member executive war cabinet, was empowered to propose legislation and impose the government's authority. As a result the Subsistence Commission asserted price and wage controls in May and September, and in August the Levee en Masse introduced general conscription. The Law of Suspects came as a culmination of this legislative process in September. Indeed, its own internal reference in Article to three prior pieces of legislation supports this view.

Authorship cannot be ascertained directly from the document, but can be inferred (unwittingly) from its context. It can be established that the issue of suspects was a particular concern to the Committee of Public Safety before September. In that Committee, Danton had pressed for a general arrest of suspects on August 1; Barere had remarked that the man who complains about everything that happens during a Revolution is a suspect; and Saint-Just had urged making terror the order of the day (Thompson, Leaders of the French Revolution, p 1-5). What was lacking was a legal definition of suspect. Therefore the Law of Suspects was drafted to meet that specific need, and to do so in a way that conveyed the radical view of its architects, the Committee of Public Safety.

A major weakness with this source document arises from the fact that it appears to be an emergency measure, perhaps hastily constructed. There is ambiguity and vagueness in the definition of suspect behaviour, in fact the whole notion appears to be elastic capable of being stretched to fit anyone and therefore open to abuse. This lack of precision makes the document unreliable as a means of accurately identifying those who were suspects. However, the inherent ambiguity may help us understand the subsequent excesses of The Reign of Terror.

In the document there are two occurrences of words remaining in the original French, perhaps signalling that these are either technical terms or have a special meaning tied to their historical context.

The first of these, certificat de civisme, appears to refer to an important document conferring proof of revolutionary loyalty. English translations of the phrase render it as a certificate of patriotism or civic responsibility. Within the historical context we know that that a certificat de civisme was necessary to exercise public office or obtain a passport (Goodwin, The French Revolution p 118). Therefore refusal to grant the certificate rendered a person suspect by virtue of the fact that they could not be trusted in public office or travel.

The term migrs refers to those who had left the Republic for political reasons, particularly royalist sympathisers of the First and Second Estate. By 17 they had consolidated around France's borders and were ordered, by the National Assembly, to be dispersed from what was considered to be armed camps. In January 17 those who had not dispersed were deemed to be conspirators against the republic, and sentenced to death in their absence together with the confiscation of their property

We should also note that the terms, tyranny, federalism and enemies of liberty in Article clause 1 are to be understood from the Convention's viewpoint, i.e. their definition rests on the interpretation of a revolutionary government.

We have already indicated that this document was published at the beginning of The Reign of Terror. Therefore we cannot expect to find witting information regarding subsequent events, because they were not known at the time. Our search for relevance must be confined to the events prior to September 17 and the way in which the Law of Suspects helped to create the conditions and apparatus for what was to follow.

We have also noted the ambiguity surrounding the definition of suspects. It seems to me that a significant part of the witting testimony is the fact that this is also a studied ambiguity, in that it is capable of ensnaring any person, thought for any reason, to be disloyal to the revolution.

However, the most important contribution the Law of Suspects makes to a study of The Reign of Terror is the (unwitting) part it played in A) politicising the Paris masses (particularly the sans culottes), and following on from this B) legitimising violence (even though there is no witting evidence for violence in the law, apart from arrest)

A)With the support of the sans culottes Jacobins replaced Girondins as the dominant group in the Convention in June 17 and in a sense this alliance meant that both the Convention and the Committee of Public Safety were answerable to the Paris crowds who provided their popular support. By September these crowds were pressing for the wholesale arrest of suspects and for terror to be adopted as a principle of government. It appears that the Committee thought that anarchy would result if they failed to maintain a strong control backed by popular support. Therefore the Law of Suspects helped to give voice to the political will and concerns of the crowd. In that sense the law embodied, at least in part, the perceived General Will.

Danton expressed the popular view thus The patrie will be saved. . . . Everything is in motion, everyone burns to fight. . . . While one part of the people goes to the frontiers, another digs our defences and a third, armed with pikes, will defend our cities and towns. . . . Paris will go to second these efforts. . . . The tocsin that shall be sounded is not a signal of alarm but a summons to charge against the enemies of the patrie. To vanquish them, Messieurs, we need boldness, always boldness (from Schama, Citizens, p 6).

B)Violence had been very evident the previous September with a massacre of prisoners around Paris. Subsequently there does seem to have been a deliberate policy by the Convention in mid 17 to take control and direct that violence as a way of asserting its own authority. This in turn led to a legitimising of violence as a political instrument of government. The Law of Suspects become in Schama's view the charter of the Terror (Schama, Citizens, p 766). One member of the Committee of Public Safety, Saint-Just, underscores the relationship of this law with violence when he comments, Between the people and their enemies there can be nothing in common but the sword; we must govern by iron those who cannot be governed by justice; we must oppress the tyrant. . . . It is impossible for revolutionary laws to be executed unless the government itself is truly revolutionary (Schama, Citizens, p 767)

The Law of Suspects does not in itself advocate violence and capital punishment, but it does enable the circumstances through which such acts may be then perpetrated. It demonises those whom it perceives as enemies and encourages their elimination, at least as opponents of the revolution.

Commenting on the revolution of the tenth of August, Robespierre had rejoiced that a river of blood would now divide France from its enemies. (from Schama, Citizens, p 7

A10 Course Team (18) A10 Block , Units 8-, (The Open University 18)

A10 Course Team (17) A10 Resource Book , A1 (The Open University 18)

William Doyle, The French Revolution, a very short introduction, (OUP 001 p 50-6)

A Goodwin, The French Revolution (5th edition), (Hutchinson 188 p 18-147)

JM Thompson, Leaders of the French Revolution, (New York Harper & Row, 167 p 1-5)

Simon Schama, Citizens, a Chronicle of the French Revolution, (Viking 18 p 60-7)

Please note that this sample paper on The Reign of Terror is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Reign of Terror, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Reign of Terror will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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