Black death

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The Black Death

The Black Death had profound effects on Medieval Europe. Although most people did not realize it at the time, the Black Death had not only marked the end of one age but it also denoted the beginning of a new one, namely the Renaissance (Effects 1).

Between 1 and 151a.d, a pandemic of plague called the Black Death, traveled from China to Europe affecting the importance of cities, creating economic and demographic crises, as well as political dislocation and realignment, and bringing about powerful new currents in culture and religion.

In the beginning, the Italian town of Genoa was one of the busiest ports in Europe. Ships sailed from there to trade all over the Mediterranean Sea. In October of 147, 1 merchant ships sailed from Caffa to Italy (Arrival 1). A strange disease had infected the crew of these ships. Dying bodies lay aboard the ships. City officials, afraid that the disease might spread, issued an order that no person or piece of merchandise was to leave the ships. They even forbade medical treatment for the sick sailors and passengers. The disease still spread. The officials had not considered that the rats from the ships were able to leave the ships by crawling along the ropes that were tied to the ships. From Italy, the disease spread all over Europe, traveling along the major trade routes. The rats were responsible for carrying the disease, which was transmitted by fleas from infected rats. The fleas drank the rats blood that carried the bacteria. The bacteria multiplied in the fleas gut. While the fleas gut was clogged with bacteria, the flea bit the human and regurgitated blood into the wound (Transmitted ).

The Black Death came in forms the bubonic, pneumonic, and septicemic. Each different from of the plague killed people in a vicious way. All forms were caused by a bacterium called Yersinia pestis (Forms 1).

The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form of the Black Death. Which had a mortality rate of 0-70%. The symptoms were enlarged and inflamed lymph nodes (around armpits, neck and groin). The term bubonic refers to the characteristic bubo or enlarged lymphatic gland. Victims were subject to headaches, nausea, aching joints, fever of 101-105 degrees, vomiting, and a general feeling of illness. Symptoms took from 1-7 days to appear (Forms ).

The pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form of the Black Death. The pneumonic and the septicemic plague were probably seen less than the bubonic plague because the victims often died before they could reach other places (this was caused by the inefficiency of transportation). The mortality rate for the pneumonic plague was 0-5%; (if treated today the mortality rate would be 5-10%). The pneumonic plague infected the lungs. Symptoms include slimy sputum; saliva mixed with mucus exerted from the respiratory system, tinted with blood. As the disease progressed, the sputum became free flowing and bright red. Symptoms took 1-7 days to appear. This disease could only be transmitted through the air, by someones cough (Forms ).

Finally the septicemic plague was the most rare form of all. The mortality was close to 100 %. Symptoms, which took 1-7 days to appear, were high fever and skin turning deep shades of purple (Forms ).

The Black Death struck the European people without warning. Physicians and philosophers harmed rather than helped. They did not understand the causes of infectious diseases nor how they spread. It is no wonder that they looked to priests and storytellers, rather than doctors, for answers. They did not have the ability to understand where this sudden cruel death had come from. And they did not know whether it would never go away (Causes 1).

The most common belief was that God, being a punishment for the sin people had committed sent the plague. Even innocent people, such as infants, had to suffer for the horrible crimes of others. The church was quick to condemn gambling, excessive drinking, the immodesty of women, and the laziness of pheasants. Guilt lay upon every mans heart. Therefore, it was only natural that the first measures taken against the plague were the confession of all sins and prayer for forgiveness (Punishment).

Praying seemed to have very little effect. Therefore, many believed there was a necessary for extreme measures. A group of men decided to punish themselves in order to persuade God to forgive them. Each of theses Flagellants would carry a wooden stick with a couple of leather tongs attached to one end. At the end of each tong would be a sharp spike, about an inch in length. The flagellants would walk from town to town. Once they would arrive in a village or city, they would go to a public place where there were a lot of people, such as a market or store. After they found that public place, they would start beating themselves with their wooden sticks, hitting their backs until blood flowed freely. The townspeople would always welcome them and the flagellants would sometimes encourage the townspeople to join their beatings. It was common for people to die in these beatings. The flagellants would then leave the town after a few days, usually taking a few locals to join their group. The groups numbers grew rapidly from 00-00 to 1000. They did more harm rather than help. The only thing they were doing was carrying the disease with them only spreading up the process (Flagellation 1).

Many people believed in a legendary witch called the Plague Maiden. She was very beautiful and carried around her neck a red scarf. It was said that she traveled from town to town passing by each house. When she waved her red scarf in front of a house window, the house would become infected. The legend also told that a man waited all night from the witch to arrive and when she did, he cut off her hand with a sword. It was said that this man was the last to die of the plague in his town (Plague maiden ).

In Europe the Jews were easy targets to blame. It was a common belief that the Jews were poisoning the water supply. In some towns, Jews were rounded up and burned to death. They also were accused of practicing witchcraft consequently also suffering the anger of mob violence. There were massacres, especially in cities along the Rhine River, and many more cases of the Jews being expelled from the town. A few towns actually protected their Jews, but the Jews were being expelled generally from Western Europe during the 14th century, and they were tolerated in Poland and Lithuania. So when the persecutions associated with the Black Death a rose, some Jews simply migrated eastward and did not return (Jews 1).

The effects that the Black Death had on Europe were very profound. The population of Europe lost about one- third of its people. These general numbers disguise the uneven nature of the epidemic. Some areas suffered very little, some suffered far more. Some examples are as follows 45% and 75% of Florence died in a single year. One- third died in the first 6 months. Its entire economic system collapsed for a time. In Venice, 60% died over the course of 18 months, 500-600 a day at the height. Certain professions suffered higher mortality, especially whose duties brought them into contact with the sick, doctors and clergy. In Montpellier, only seven of 140 Dominican friars survived. In Perpignan, only one of physicians survived, and of 18 barber surgeon (Population loss 1).

The death rate of Auignon was 50% and was even higher among the clergy. One- third of the cardinals died. Clement VI had to concentrate the Rhone River so corpses could be sunken it, for there was not time or room to bury them. Long term population loss is also instructive. Urban populations recovered quickly, in some cases within a couple of years, though immigration from the countryside because of increased opportunities in the cities. Hardest hit was special groups, such as friars, who took a couple of generations to recover. In many areas, pre-plague population levels were not reached until the 1500s, in a few not until the 1600. This is one reason why the Black Death marks a dividing line between the central Middle Ages, with medieval culture in full bloom and at its greatest strength, and the later Middle Ages. The later period was one of chronically reduced population (Population loss ).

Prior to its arrival, life was difficult for the ordinary man, who was practically enslaved by his landlord. Additionally, living conditions were very unsanitary. When the plague was brought to Europe, this state of existence promoted the spreading of this new disease and changed the way people, both rich and poor, dealt with their lives. After many years, when this epidemic finally ended, living standards had changes dramatically, Immense effects could be seen in culture, spirituality, and especially economics. Society was never to be the same again; life had changed forever. (Effects )

Eventually, the plague did disappear, but it left Europe with great cultural changes. Art, in other cases, was most effected by the plague. During the pre-plague times, Nobel lords were shown in full health, in their best clothes, and armor, holding their swards. Afterwards, half-decomposed bodies with parts of skeleton clearly visible were shown. The clothes draping the body were old dirty rags and some sculptures showed worms and snails borrowing in rotten flesh (Art 1). After the plague the art was obsessive with cruel aspects of pain and suffering. Painting focused on skeletons mixed in with men in every day life. It was a very cruel sort of art. Literature was also effected by the plague. It became more dark and somber. Now that most of the stony writers and tellers died from the plague all that was talked about were dead bodies and poems of death and stories were told about the plague. In architecture, many of those with the skill to build died from the plague. Many buildings that were started before the plague were never finished. Universities were abandoned. In Europe Education Standards were incredibly low. The whole community of scholars suffered as universities and schools were closed or even abandoned. 16 of 40 Professors at Cambridge died.

French was commonly spoken among the education in England, The death of numerous French teachers, however, helped the English language to gain over French in Britain. (Art1)

Cities were hit had hard by the plague, Financial businesses were disrupted as debtors died and their creditors found themselves without recourse. Not only had the creditor died, his who family had died with him and many of his friends. There was simply no one to collect from (Disruption 1). Construction projects were stopped or even abandoned, guilds lost their craftsmen, without the ability to replace them, important machinery broke, and those with the ability to repair them had died (Effects). The labor shortage was very severe, and consequently, wages rose. Because of the mortality, there was an over supply of goods, and prices dropped. Whole families died, with not heirs, their houses standing empty. The countryside faced a short-term shortage of labor. They tried to get more forced labor from them, as there were fewer peasants to be had. Peasant in many areas began to demand fairer treatment.

Lastly, the change in spirituality was one of the major effects of the plague. The Black Death left survivors mourning, depressed, and fearful of its return (Economy 1)

One of the groups that suffered the most was the Christian Church. It lasts prestige, spiritual authority, and leadership over the people. The church promised cures, treatment, and an explanation for the plague. They said it was Gods will, but the reason for this awful punishment was unknown. People wanted answers, but the priests and bishops didnt have anything to say. The people abandoned their Christian duties and fled. People prayed to God and begged for forgiveness. After the plague ended, angry and frustrated villagers started to revolt against the church, this caused the churches to be abandoned (Effects ).

The Black Death changed European history in many ways. Its fatal symptoms took many human lives, and its influenced carried over into many areas of society. People suffered religiously because the disease brought out the darker side of life and made them question God. Europe would not be the same today without these changes brought on through the devastation of the Black Death.

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Northwest Case Analysis

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PorterÕs Five Forces Model

When relating the airline industry, or more specifically Northwest Airlines, to PorterÕs Five Forces Model there are five forces to be examined, hence the name. First off it is good to look at the risk of entry by potential competitors. With respect to this force there is a high barrier to entry due to the high cost of capital. To be a competitor in the airline industry you must first have and airplane. Airplanes are large investments that require high mechanical maintenance, and a high degree of employee competence. If you arenÕt operating efficiently you wonÕt be profiting enough to adequately maintain your aircraft and keep competent employees.

The second force of the five is rivalry among established companies already in the industry. In the airline industry this is always something that is relevant. Seeing that all airlines generally provide the same service of bringing people from one place to another it is important to differentiate. To be a competitive airline you need to offer something that the others donÕt, for instance you may focus on service and neglect low fares or focus on low fares and minimize service. Depending upon the target market for either one of these niches it is important to offer customers something that is appealing, and something they wonÕt be able to get from another airline.

The third force of five is the bargaining power of buyers. The events of /11 promoted negative financial trends that were already evident in the airline industry before this disaster. Buyer bargaining power as of right now is somewhat high. People arenÕt traveling as much as they used to due to widespread fear over terrorism. In general people arenÕt traveling by plane unless they have to. This leads to the dilemma of making it a bargain to fly using an airline and not some other substitute. Perhaps focusing on business travelers is the smart thing to do right now because they are the people who fly out of necessity due to their career.

The fourth force in the model is the bargaining power of suppliers. Since the airline industry is hard to substitute for with other modes of transportation, the bargaining power it has is overall quite strong. Airlines can provide poor service such as delays and overbooking and still have people pay fares that arenÕt very low. This is because when you need to get to a place not accessible by any other way than aircraft, whether it be due to time constraint or physical location, people will put up with the poor service. Obviously bad service is a poor business strategy, but in the airline industry it is far more accepted than in most other industries.

The final and fifth force is substitutes for the industry. Luckily there are not many modes of transportation that can compare to the airplane. Although many modes of transportation are less expensive, none can cover great distances in such a short amount of time. There are substitutes such as personal vehicles, buses, and boats, but all of these can be inconvienent and slow. Another form of substitution could be the wide range of communication technology there is today. With high speed internet access and cell phones at an all time high you can stay in touch with anyone and everyone whenever you please. Although these are very comforting nothing can be substituted for a face to face meeting or visit with a loved one or business associate. To substitute any other form of transportation or communication mode for flying will result in less than desirable results a majority of the time.

Industry Significance

Since /11 the airline industryÕs significance has undoubtedly dropped off to regions of questionable importance to a lot of people. These people are not just the customers, but the airlines themselves. The airline industryÕs profitability has been cyclical over time and negative since /11. Between 10 and 1, major U.S. carriers lost about ten billion dollars. All but one major airline reported losses. Three major carriers Braniff, Eastern, and Pan Am, went out of business. Three others including TWA, Northwest, and Continental entered bankruptcy proceedings. (Walker 001) In 1 Congress had established the National Commission to Promote a Strong and Competitive Airline Industry. This formed a commission that helped with making suggestions for the FAAÕs structure, the airline industryÕs financial health, and foreign ownership limits. Between 1 and 1 almost all of the major U.S. airlines reported positive annual operating profits, and this also held true for 000.

The terrorist attacks on /11 unfortunately sped up the already negative financial trend that the airline industry was beginning to experience. Before /11 the airline industry was already beginning to incur major net operating losses. In order for the industry to maintain itÕs financial health it must be profitable, because without profits cash will not be generated internally. The net income is very important, but for the airline industry to stay viable, or for a specific airline to stay afloat, there needs to be good cash flow.

Market Share

Lately losses have been a part of the game for the airline industry. As quoted from UBS Warburg airline analyst Samuel Buttrick says, the industry will lose $5 billion this year, followed by a $1 billion loss in 00, and profits unlikely in 004. (Buttrick 00) In ButtrickÕs report he cites that there will be a less robust revenue environment amid industry cost cutting.

Finance chiefs with major airlines are looking more closely at competitors wanting to move in on their turf. Just a few years ago Southwest Airlines, that was just a little upstart has had considerable growing market share. Low-cost airlines operate under different cost structures than regular airlines. Some of these airlines have sacrificed service with things such as no seat reservations, no transfer of luggage from one carrier to another, and even the absence of onboard meals. With al this reduced overhead lower fares are able to be set in comparison with most of the other major airlines. Low-cost carriers account for about 0 percent of the U.S. domestic marketplace. Back when they accounted for five or ten percent, they would be in two or three different markets. Because there was such a competitive industry these airlines would set the pricing, and as they grow there is just no way that these markets cannot be addressed.

References

Walker, David M., State of US Commercial Airline Industry. www.gao.gov/cghome/iac118.htm (001)

The Airline Industry, www.adg.stanford.edu/aa41/intro/airlineindustry.html (000)

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UNIVERSITY DAYS

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UNIVERSITY DAYS

James Thurber

NOTES PREPARED BY SATHEESH

Thurber's fame as a humourist rests on both his writings and his drawings. His writings are remarkable for their sublime humour, pathos and psychological insight. In his childhood an accidental arrow left him blind in one eye. Eventually, a 'sympathetic opthalmia' took over his other eye. Owing to this, his early life was filled with a certain melancholy and introspection. He unleashes a masterpiece of humor and subtle mockery in 'University Days.' The essay amuses his audience with the follies and foibles of himself and his peers at the university.

1.Thurber could never pass botany. He never once saw a cell through a microscope. The instructor would begin patiently explaining how anyone can see through a microscope. He would adjust the microscope for Thurber. But he would always end up in a fury claiming that Thurber pretended that he couldn't see. The student was supposed to see 'a vivid, restless clockwork of sharply defined plant cells.' What Thurber saw looked like a lot of milk. Thurber used to complain that the microscope took away the beauty of flowers. He was not solely concerned with the mechanics of flowers. He was more interested in the aesthetics of flowers.

.Thurber took a deferred pass and waited a year. The next year the professor came back from vacation brown as a berry and fit as a fiddle. He was determined to make Thurber see cells this time. Students to the right of him and to the left of him were seeing cells, but not Thurber. The professor pulled himself together and began patiently. He declared that he would try every adjustment of the microscope known to man. He swore that he would make Thurber see cells or give up teaching. The professor was working up gradually. When he reached the point of mentioning his career of twenty two years of teaching Botany, he lost control of. The professor shook all over like Lionel Barrymore. Barrymore was a prolific actor who was most effectively cast in character roles of villains, military officers etc. Thurber had taxed the professor too much.

.Thurber went to the Economics class straight from the Botany class. So he used to mix up those two subjects. But Thurber was not as confused as another student who came to the Economics class direct from the Physics laboratory. He had the Polish name of Bolenciecwcz. He was a tackle on the football team. At that time, Ohio State University had one of the best football teams in the country. Bolenciecwcz was the pride of the University team. A student had to qualify himself in his studies in order to be eligible to play. It was very difficult for the dud. Thurber tells us with tongue in cheek that Bolenciecwcz was not less intelligent than an ox. The humour in the irony is that the ox is not famous for its intelligence. The only noteworthy quality in an ox is its smartness. However, Bolenciecwcz was not any smarter than the animal.

4.Gymnasium work was a harrowing experience for Thurber. They made you strip the day you registered. Moreover, they asked a lot of embarrassing questions. They wouldn't let you do the exercises with your glasses on. Owing to his partial blindness, Thurber made a mess of the Gymnasium class. Without his glasses on, he couldn't differentiate between professors and iron-bars. He bumped into virtually everything in the gymnasium. He felt their presence but he could not discern them. He could not tell an agricultural student from an iron ring. The humour is in grouping the animate professors and agricultural students with inanimate objects like the horizontal bars and iron rings.

5.A lot of agriculture students took up Journalism as an additional subject. Apparently, there is nothing in common between Journalism and Agriculture. Farming was a precarious occupation and it was prone to fail. The students hoped to fall back on journalism in case farming went awry. They didn't realize that Journalism was an equally risky job. Falling back on Journalism was very much like falling back full-length on a kit of carpenters' tools. Here Thurber employs a pun on the phrase 'fall back on.' It is a phrasal verb with the extended metaphorical meaning of 'have recourse to in difficulty.' When used in the literal sense it has only the aggregate of the meaning of the three words 'fall' + 'back' + 'on.'

6.Thurber narrates the experience of an agricultural student who chose Journalism as an additional subject. He was a timid student by name Haskins. He was not cut out for journalism. The editor of the college paper generally suggested the cow barns and the horse pavilions as the subject of his assignments. The editor was pretty annoyed because his assignments were very uninteresting. Once the editor asked Haskins to produce some hot news from the horse pavilion. They had a large collection of horses, second only to the Purdue University. The editor hoped to get something readable from Haskins. Haskin plunged into action and produced the 'sensational' news of some obscure horse disease!

7.Two years of military training was compulsory in the university. Thurber was never any good at military drills. Once General Littlefield snapped at Thurber that he was the main trouble with the university. Thurber was at a loss to know whether the General meant him individually or that type of cadets as a whole. Thurber was the only senior still in uniforms. The uniform, when new, had given him the prestigious look of a railway conductor. It has now become faded and tight. He looked awkward and clumsy in the old uniform. It gave him the appearance of a clown. He looked like the Negro comedian Bert Williams in his errand-boy role. The uniform had a bad effect on his morale.

8.One General Littlefield put Thurber's company to task. He tried complicated squad manoeuvres. In three minutes one hundred and nine men were marching in one direction and Thurber was marching in another. The General declared that Thurber was the only man who got it right. He was made a corporal for this achievement. The next day Littlefield summoned Thurber to his office. The General was swatting flies. He was fully immersed in his occupation and did not seem to notice the presence of Thurber. Abruptly the General ordered him to button up his coat as if the General was chiding the fly. Thurber, in his uneasiness, startled the fly the General was chasing. The General was enraged and he dismissed Thurber from the room. Thurber was at a loss to know why the General wanted to see him. Perhaps, the General wanted to apologize for having called him the main trouble with the university. Perhaps, the General wanted to compliment his brilliant marching performance. (114 words)

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E-payment: which is your best choice

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A growing amount of economic activity is taking place on the Internet (Weiner, 1). As a result, electronic payment displays a boom although paper based payment methods dominate the payment systems in the U.S. economy. So what is Electronic Payment? Electronic Payment refers to financial transactions that are made without the use of paper documents such as cheques or notes (A consumer's guide of electronic payments, 001).

Recently, there are many different e-payment methods emerging on the web. Facing a wide variety of options, consumers are confused about which one is the best. I believe that the best e-payment must have a stable and secure environment offering protection to the consumer. After comparing three e-payment systems, I have discovered every system has advantages and disadvantages. But, in general, I think credit/debit card online payment is the best system in E-Business currently.

In this essay, I will introduce three categories of e-payments and their working processes, and also analyse the advantages and disadvantages of each systems. First of all is the credit/debit card on-line payment. The second one is personal on-line payment and the last one is E-money. This essay can help to illustrate why I believe the credit/debit card is the best system in E-Business. This research is based on the America E-Business environment because of its most popular use of the Internet.

First of all, I would like to introduce the first type of e-payment instrument-Credit/Debit card online payment. Their boom has contributed to the huge point of sales (POS) and automatic teller machine (ATM) networks (Feiler, 1.p.4). Because of the nature of electronic information transaction, credit/debit card became the preliminary e-payment tools when web-business emerged on the Internet. In fact, an estimated, 15 billion transactions (8% of volume) worth $1,5 billion (87% of value) were operated on the web in the U.S. in 000 (Sienkiewicz and Bochicchio, 00, p.6). Now let us look how the credit/debit card works on the web.

Normally each web merchant has his own credit/debit clearing service agency whose computers connect with every card issued by banks and financial companies. When purchasers place an order, they must offer information of their card such as card number, expiry date and name of cardholder. After formatting the transaction detail appropriately, the agency sends this information to the issuing bank to request transaction authorization. Finally, the issuing bank approves the transfer of money to acquiring bank who in turn, credits the merchants account (How It Works - Credit Card Processing, 00).

The advantages of credit/debit card are obvious. The primary point is that 75.1% American people own a credit card and .8% have a debit card (Stavins, 001, p.). Moreover, the credit/debit card works on a large and stable electronic network which links cardholders, merchants, issuing banks, merchant banks and credit card companies. This network permits payers and payees to deal with the money transfer directly even they have different bank accounts. Also, the usage of a credit card is protected by the Business Law of America. For example, if a credit card holder orders a commodity and the commodity is not delivered, the credit card-issuing bank is required to treat the matter as a billing error and resolve it such as getting the card holder reimbursed or the merchandise/services delivered (Spiotto, 001).

However, credit/debit card online payment is not a financial instrument without any drawbacks. Security is one of the problems. In my experience, I will pay my bill on the POS by credit/debit card without any hesitation but before I place an order and submit my credit card information on the Internet, I will consider carefully. People are afraid of hackers stealing their credit information. Another big problem is higher charges. In the food retailer market, the cost of credit transaction is five times higher than that of cash (Stavins, 001, p.1). Expensive transaction fees also obstruct the growth of small businesses on the web which are experiencing E-Business boom currently. The third problem is the long clearing time which means the payees need to wait several days to confirm the money reception. E-retailers need quick currency cycle in order to sustain a good business operation (Morton, 001, p.1). For this reason, e-retailers do not like to use credit/debit card online payment system.

The second category of e-payment system is Personal online payment, which is an online payment systems that are Internet-based systems for making small retail payments and have recently emerged as an alternative to cash, cheques, and credit cards. All these systems use the web to convey payment information, but they differ in the type of accounts they access. Proprietary Account System (PAS) and Bank Account-Based System (BABS) are two main examples (Kuttner and McAndrews, 001).

In PAS, funds are transferred between special purpose accounts maintained by a non-bank provider. When payers and payees open accounts and save some money in those accounts on a same service provider, payers just need to key in the data about the fund transfer following payment delivery instruction and then the notification and confirmation can be completed by email. The service provider's computer will transfer the money between the two users' accounts immediately.

Using PAS has many benefits. One of the benefits is quick and simple processing. PAS uses the email as a tool. This is easy to be operated and delivered immediately. Moreover, on-line payments are inexpensive compared with credit and debit cards. That is why the PAS is quickly replacing the credit card, paper cheque and cash after it was built on the web for on-line auctions in 1 (Kuttner and McAndrews, 001). Nevertheless, the drawback is if you prefer to do e-business on several websites, you must open several accounts by different non-bank providers and save some money in each account. The money does not transfer between the real accounts directly.

In Bank Account-Based System (BABS), funds are transferred between demand deposit accounts at banks. BABS is operated by Automate Clearing House (ACH) which is a secure, private electronic payment transfer system that connects all U.S. financial institutions and is monitored by the America Federal Reserve Bank. How does it work? A company sends an electronic file to its bank and ACH operator, usually the Federal Reserve Bank. After checking, the ACH then sends a file back to the bank that contains all of the deposits which were made to its clients' accounts. Finally, the bank credits the funds to the receivers (Trombly, 001).

According to Gartner research, 17% of business-to-business payments are now made electronically and ACH occupies % (Trombly, 001). BABS is less expensive than most alternatives. For example the cost of using a credit card is 15-0 cents per transaction compared with a fee of just .5 to 5 cents per ACH transaction. Unlike PAS, the money is transferred to sellers' account directly by ACH. However, ACH faces a big hidden problem in there is a gap in the law which does not provide effective protection to those who use ACH to do business on the web (Spiotto, 001). For instance, consumers may not get their money back if the sellers do not deliver the ordered goods to them once the deal is operated by ACH. Although consumers can claim in the courts, it is a costly process.

The third category of e-payment is called E-money. Most e-moneys are designed for the special purpose of business on the web and it includes digital cash, digital wallet, virtual points, and virtual credit card.

The digital cash and digital wallet work similarly as following Retailers download the software that accepts the currency, and customers download software that offers this currency (Angwin, 000). The advantage is they limit fraud, because they can only be used on appointed websites for a fixed amount of purchases. A big obstacle for them is a chicken-and-egg problem. Retailers dont want to install new software unless they see a lot of customers using them. Customers dont want to download software unless they see a lot of retailers accepting them.

Users earn virtual currency for viewing ads or filling out marketing surveys, that is virtual points. They can spend the currency at retailers that have agreed to accept it (Angwin, 000). Virtual points help retailers lock in customers to their products. The value for customers is that they can get free money if they are willing to part with some personal information. Unfortunately, it meets the same bar as digital cash and wallet.

The last one is virtual credit card. A bank asks its credit-card customers to download some software onto their computers. Whenever they shop, that software generates a one-time credit card number for the purchase (Angwin, 000).You do not need to submit actual card information online so it is very safe. But the possible problem is the finite number of credit-card numbers that can be generated and the difficulty of recycling disposable numbers.

In this essay, I have stated three main categories of e-payment systems including advantages and disadvantages. The most popular e-payment is credit/debit card online payment. Then, personal online payment system is a fast growing e-payment instrument. Lastly, E-money is a newly emerging system in the E-Business world.

In conclusion, I believe that credit/debit card online payment is the best system currently. First of all, any payment tools must link to a bank or financial companies and at the same time most banks or these financial companies are card issuing institutions. Furthermore, credit/debit card payment has a huge community of users, which is unlikely to be exceeded in the short term. Last reason is the most important that America business law offers complete protection on using credit card. Whatever consumers choose, there are three important criteria that must be kept in mind. They are security, convenience and charges (Morton, 001, p.1).

A consumer's guide to electronic payments

(http//www.paytips.org/index.htm) [0/06/00]

Angwin, J. (000), The lessons Weve Learned --- E-Money And How Will You Be Paying For That? --- A look at the pros and cons of the various forms of payment springing up on the Web, Wall Street Journal, (A Special Report) p.7

(http//online.wsj.com/public/us)

(http//proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=0000000680800&Fmt=&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=4&Sid=1&RQT=0) [/05/00]

Fieler, K. (1), Electronic Money, On Reserve-Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, pp.1-16

(http//www.chicagofed.org/publications/electronicmoney/electronicmoney.pdf)

[04/06/00]

How It Works - Credit Card Processing (http//www.cybersource.com/products_and_services/electronic_payments/credit_card_processing/howitworks.xml) [04/06/00]

Kuttner, N.K. & McAndrews, J.J. (001), Personal on-line payment, Economic Policy Review - Federal Reserve Bank of New York, vol.7, No. , pp. 5-55

(http//www.newyorkfed.org/rmaghome/econ_pol/001/101kutt.html)

[/05/00]

Morton, W. (001), A Consumers Guide --- Payments -- Check It Out The Web is suddenly crowded with online-payment services; Heres how they compare, Wall Street Journal, p.1

(http//online.wsj.com/public/us)

(http//proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=0000000416877&Fmt=&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=14&Sid=1&RQT=0) [4/05/00]

Sienkiewicz, J. & Bochicchio, M. (00), The Future of E-Commerce Payments, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, p.6

(http//www.phil.frb.org/pcc/conferences/futurepayments00.pdf) [05/06/00]

Spiotto, H.A. (001), Credit, debit, or ACH Consequences & liabilities, ABA Bank Compliance, vol., No., pp.4-11

(http//www.aba.com/bankcompliance/default.htm)

(http//proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=00000008558&Fmt=4&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=18&Sid=&RQT=0) [8/05/00]

Stavins, J. (001) Effect of Consumer Characteristic on the Use of Payment Instruments, New England Economic Review, No., pp. 1-1

(http//www.bos.frb.org/economic/neer/neer001/neer01b.pdf) [06/06/00]

Trombly, M. (001), Automated Clearing House, Computerworld, vol.5, No.15, p.44

http//www.computerworld.com/softwaretopics/software/appdev/story/0,10801,50,00.html [4/05/00]

Weiner, E.S. (1), Electronic payments in the U.S. economy An overview, Economic Review - Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Vol. 84, No. 4, pp. 5-65

(http//www.kc.frb.org/Publicat/econrev/PDF/4qwein.pdf) [/05/00]

Please note that this sample paper on E-payment: which is your best choice is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on E-payment: which is your best choice, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on E-payment: which is your best choice will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Television effects

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MEDIA AND FEAR OF CRIME

The mass media constantly surrounds us, frequently informs us and just as well misinforms us and mainstreams us into a common reality (Gerbner, 176). With newspapers and magazines, the mass media entered our homes. With radios and television, the mass media became accessible from cradle to grave. With VCRs, cable, and satellite access, the sheer volume of programming available at any one time exploded. The real world increase in the occurrence of stranger crimes and mass attacks could make the media image even more potent because of the prevalence of random crimes reported by the media. This paper looks at mass media research and it's effects on perception of crime danger, personal fear of crime, and reactions to crime risk. Sections describing the effects of television, newspapers, and the new technologies on fear of crime are all covered.

TELEVISION EFFECTS

From the earliest days of television there has been concern about the depiction of crime and violence in programs. For a long time anxieties centered on whether examples set by television characters shown as using violence to overcome obstacles and achieve personal goals, encouraged the development and display of delinquent and antisocial behaviors among viewers, especially the young and impressionable. More recently, there has been fresh concern that through its repeated portrayal of criminal and violent behavior, TV can cultivate distorted perceptions of the incidence of violence in the real world and produce exaggerated fears for personal safety (Gerbner, 176).

Gerbner suggest that, TV is the central cultural arm of American society. It is an agency of the established order and as such serves primarily to extend and maintain rather than to alter, threaten, or weaken conventional conceptions, beliefs, and behaviors…Its function is, in a word, enculturation. In regard to fear of crime, the fear and heightened perceived risk that television may enculture leads to increased acquiescence to and dependence upon established authority (Gerbner, 176, p. 175).

The TV world contains much more violence than the real world (Gerbner, 176). Measuring television violence can be done through obtain ratings and opinions from viewers about which programs are violent and how seriously so. This can be done by asking individuals to indicate from a list of program titles which are violent and which are not (Gomme, 186). One problem with this kind of measure is that it cannot indicate how much violence there is in specific episodes (Gomme, 186).

There is also failed attempts to find a link between TV viewing and fear of crime after controlling for variables like age, education, and income (Gomme, 186). When looking at ratings of crime seriousness related to amount of television news viewing, suggesting an anchoring effect caused by the more serious crimes usually targeted by TV news (Potter, 186). TV viewing, fear of crime relationship held only for those respondents who expressed a belief in the truth of television drama (Potter, 186). It is termed as magic window dimension, reflecting a belief that TV shows the world as it really is (Potter, 186).

It can be seen that a process of influence in which greater amounts of TV viewing can produce biased or distorted beliefs about the world that are consistent with TV's stereotyped portrayals (Gerbner, 176). Viewers absorb information, often inadvertently, from TV programs, which may influence the way they think about the world around them (Gerbner, 176). Continuous exposure to TV may cultivate public beliefs about various social entities that are consistent with images of these entities portrayed on TV (Gerbner, 176).

Typically, the violence of a program is assessed in terms of the number of incidents it contains that match what the researchers themselves decide is violent. All incidents that match an a priori of violence are given equal weighting for intensity and seriousness, irrespective of the dramatic context in which they occur (Gerbner, 176).

A related study looked at respondents' fear of victimization and then assigned them to view a film about killing and murder (Wakshlag, 18). The relationship between TV viewing and fear of crime was considered complex. Factors such as the type of programming (e.g., drama vs. news), the credulity of the viewer, the extent of justice displayed at the program's end, and the level of apprehension about crime before the viewing all lead to patterns rather then effects (Wakshlag, 18).

Although it may be impossible to define exactly what the audience in general means by violence, there is evidence to suggest that viewers' perceptions do not accord strongly with objective counts of program incidents (Halloran, 17). A British TV output, using a fixed definition of violence, showed that the rate of violent incidents per hour was four times as great for cartoon shows as for any other type of program (Halloran, 17). Meanwhile another study of the audience's perceptions of TV violence indicated that cartoons were not ruled as violent (Halloran, 17).

In a field study conducted by the audience researchers at the British Broadcasting Corporation, viewers were asked to fill out a questionnaire about programs shortly after they were seen on TV. Reactions to violence and other aspects of program content were probed in this study. It was found that perceptions of programs as violent didn't depend on the actual number of violent incidents (B.B.C., 17). There also wasn't a strong relationship between perceiving a program as violent and verbally reported emotional arousal (B.B.C., 17). Most respondents also claimed that realism was an essential element in their perceptions of televised violence, with violent real life events reported on news bulletins or shown in documentaries generally rated as more violent than violence portrayed in fictional settings (B.B.C., 17). This indicates that viewers' personal assessment of TV programs are determined by many different factors, of which violence is the most important.

Adults' perceptions of TV violence

A report of twelve experimental studies in which people were shown scenes from British crime series, American crime series, sci-fi series, and cartoons (Gunter, 185). Viewers were invited to make a variety of personal judgements about each scene along a set of qualitative rating scales. Some factors that came into effect were the types of programs the scenes came from, the types of weapons or instruments of violence used, physical setting, and the degree of observable harm the violence caused to victims in each scene. The results showed that viewers may be influenced in their opinions about TV violence by many different attributes of TV portrayals (Gunter, 185).

Familiarity of surroundings is one of the most powerful factors influencing viewers' perception of TV violence (Gunter, 185). The closer to home the violence is portrayed in terms of place and time, the more serious it is judged to be (Gunter, 185). In the British crime series it was rated more violent when compared to the US series. Portrayals of violent behavior in cartoons or sci-fi programs, were seen as essentially nonviolent. Of the different physical forms of violence, shootings were the most often, but stabbings, were perceived as most frightening and disturbing (Gunter, 185).

Children's perceptions of TV violence

Similarly, in Holland 14 children were shown full-length episodes of eight TV scenes (Van der Voot, 186). The episodes varied from realistic crime drama to adventure series and fantasy cartoons. Right after the shooting scenes in each show, a questionnaire was filled out. Some area's questioned were readiness, approval, enjoyment, evaluation, absorption, identification, and comprehension of the content. Results showed that law enforcement programs as well as children's adventure programs were rated as realistic (Van der Voot, 186). Realistic shows were watched with more involvement, more emotion and less detachment (Van der Voot, 186). Although cartoons are seen as being the most violent of TV shows in terms of incidents per hour or per show, such shows tend to be seen by children as having little violence at all (Van der Voot, 186).

NEWSPAPER EFFECTS

Newspaper readers tend, to be better educated, to have higher incomes, and to live in neighborhoods that have less crime, which has been found to be the mirror image of TV viewing (Heath, 184). Research on newspaper reading differs form research on TV effects because newspapers contain only news and not the fictionalized crime drama has on TV (Heath, 184). Newspaper readers select which article to read in detail and which to scan or skip, whereas the selectivity of TV viewing is less clearly established. Newspaper reports of crime are accessible only to people who can read, eliminating concerns about direct effects on children.

Moreover, newspapers show many of the same patterns as TV programming. Sex and violence are staples in newspapers, violent crimes are much more likely to be reported than less violent ones, and with important details, like motive.

Heath(184) content analyzed crime articles form 6 newspapers in 4 us cities. She looked at sensationalism, randomness, and location of the crime. She then used phone interviews of people in those cities concerning their media habits and fear of crime. Results indicate that location of crime interacted significantly with crime sensationalism and randomness (Heath, 184). Which means, reports of local crimes that were sensational or random were associated with higher levels of fear of crime, whereas reports of nonlocal random or sensational crimes were associated with lower levels of fear of crime.

A similar pattern was demonstrated in Great Britain (Williams, 1). They also found a significant relationship between readership and fear of crime (Williams, 1). Reading about bizarre, violent crimes resulted in more fear if the crimes occurred in one's neighborhood than if the crimes occurred elsewhere (Williams, 1). Reading about nonsensational crimes, was less frightening for local crimes than for nonlocal crimes (Williams, 1).

NEW TECHNOLOGY EFFECTS

No longer does the number of local newspapers equal or exceed the number of TV channels in most areas. Newspaper choice is decreasing at the same time TV choice is increasing wildly (Fergson, 14).

A study examined the effects of VCR ownership, cable access, and channel changers on fear of crime (Fergson, 14). He hypothesized that cable subscription would be related to lower fear of crime and less mistrust because cable subscribers have more choice about viewing options, many of which present scenes not related to the high crime diet of regular broadcast TV (Fergson, 14). He also hypothesized that greater viewing of broadcast channels would be related to high fear of crime. Regarding VCR ownership and use, he hypothesized that VR ownership and tape rentals would be negatively related to fear and mistrust. Finally, he hypothesized that ownership and use of remote control devices would be negatively related to fear and mistrust, because of the greater control these devices offer over TV offerings.

The results from this study were mixed. Broadcast viewing was positively related to fear of crime and specialized cable channel viewing was negatively related to fear of crime (Fergson, 14). VCR ownership was negatively related to fear of crime, but the other hypotheses about time shifting and tape rental was not supported. Even thought mixed results happened, this study represents an important step in examining the effects of these new technologies.

CONCLUSION

Media effects are not simple effects but they involve many judges. Researchers trying to understand the relationships between media and fear of crime need to attend to characteristics of the message, and of the audience.

Regarding the characteristics of the message, factors such as sensationalism or randomness of the crime, proportion of the entire newspaper devoted to crime rather then to the raw number of articles about crime, and the drama or news content all affect the relationship with fear of crime.

Regarding the characteristics of the audience, belief in the reality of TV drama and viewer apprehension about crime victimization affect the relationship with fear of crime.

By all means, continuing to count violent incidents in programs to produce TV violence profiles is good, but the definitions of violence or violent acts on screen should be determined or at least guided by audience opinions. It would be wrong to assume that all such incidents have the same meaning for, are perceived in the same way by, or generate the same level of response from viewers. The meaning of the event will be affected by the type of program in which it occurs, characters involved, reason and consequences, and other factor, as well.

Please note that this sample paper on Television effects is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Television effects, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Television effects will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Drugs, Alcohol and Crime

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Drugs, Alcohol and Crime. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Drugs, Alcohol and Crime paper right on time.

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Assignment Question

Consult the readings about theories of addiction and discuss your opinion as to which is most relevant. In other words, What do you think are the main causes of addiction? Is the main cause physical, psychological or social? Or are all three dimensions involved?

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Introduction

For centuries, drugs and alcohol consumption have been a part of every day life. The Ancient Chinese would smoke opium in 'Opium Houses' to relax and contemplate, the Ancient Romans would congregate in large numbers and have parties with enormous consumption of wine and alcohol, and even as early as Queen Victorian times, Royalty and the upper class were a little partial to sniffing cocaine from their 'snuff' boxes. All of these types of behavioral patterns were seen not as illegal dealings but rather as a social way of life. It may not have been determined or documented if, those who indulged in such activities became addicted by means of social, physical or psychological means, and if so, did those addictions lead to crime to support those addictions?

During this assignment, the author will outline and discuss the main physical, psychological and social causes of addiction and to determine if these are based on individual problems or if all three dimensions are involved.

Definition of Addiction

physiologic or psychologic dependence on some agent (eg. Alcohol, drug) with a tendency to increase its use. (Miller, B. & Keane, C. 187, p18.)

There are many forms of addiction, such as, a person may be addicted to his/her form of sport, wanting to always improve on ones physical health, appearance and well being. Some may be addicted to social interaction by being around other people, some are addicted to life in general, enjoying what life has to offer. In general terms, these types of addictions are seen to be healthy and socially acceptable.

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However, there are other forms of addiction that can be harmful, not only physical, but mentally on the person directly and upon others around him/her. These addictions may consist of gambling, sexual offences (serial rapists, pedophiles, etc), drugs and alcohol.

Addiction to either alcohol or drugs can be fatal, not only to the user, but can have an devastating impact on those who have any form of relationship such as family, friends, employers and even innocent bystanders. The author believes that no one person sets out in life to become an addict to alcohol or illicit drugs, but rather due to the outside influences or other underlying problem areas, one may find themselves in.

Of all legal and illegal substances, alcohol is the one that most Australians regularly consume and for the majority, it is a normal part of our cultural and social activities. However, alcohol is also a major factor in homicides, domestic violence, and police custodies. Homel and Bull (16), suggest that the experience of alcohol-related disorder in our society is very common. Such disorder has implications for public policy, for not only does disorder contribute to a fear of crime, it contributes to the actual incidence of crime.

There are many reasons why people use alcohol, the most common being the social factor to interact with other people whether in-group functions or individually. Alcohol allows the body to suppress anxiety and allows the person to relax and give them a sense of wellbeing. This also allows them to interact with another person more confidently, for example a young male wishing to have a conversation with a female he is attracted to finds himself not having the courage to approach the female whilst sober.

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However, upon the consumption of a number of alcoholic drinks, his body's central nervous system is suppressed, his brain and thought pattern takes away his apprehension to socialise with a person of the opposite sex. His thought process is now relaxed and he finds within himself that courage that he earlier did not have. Over a period of time, this person may tend to believe that by drinking alcohol is his only way to relax and interact with other people. Slowly the continuos consumption of alcohol may lead him/her to become dependant on it just to cope with his/her day to day life.

Schlaadt & Shannon (14), suggest that whilst young adults congregate at gatherings such as sorority parties and sporting events etc, they will drink to become more socially active towards each other. The introduction of 'soft' drugs, such as marijuana, is introduced to heighten the euphoria of well being and allow both young males and females to communicate on a more open level. The author believes that at this stage, the use of illicit drugs is not due to peer group pressure or other external pressures but as a part of the individual allowing him/herself to become more socially active. The effects of the alcohol or drugs suppressing the body's brain of feeling apprehensive, allows that person to be more self-confident to communicate with others; however, this may not necessarily mean that the person now becomes addicted or dependant to those forms of drugs.

The author believes that some young adults, as a result of being curious, would experiment in the use of drugs in an attempt to see for themselves what effects they have. The most common for any young adult was to consume their first alcoholic drink or cigarette. These experiments could be started as young as 11 or 1 years of age.

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As they become older, experimenting with alcohol or cigarettes may increase to smoking marijuana or taking an ecstasy tablet, then perhaps LSD. At this point in time they may not believe that by conducting these experiments is causing a number of health issues with their bodies and also could be starting a journey down a path to becoming a full time user of heavier forms of illicit drugs.

Various forms of fashion, music and social events, for example, are seen to be a major influence on societies way of life. An example could be recognised in the fashion industry over the past four decades. Where there have been many styles of clothing products that have lead the consumer to purchase and follow such trends, for example in the 160's bright coloured flare pants and multi-coloured shirts were seen to be the accepted form of dress by young adults.

If you were not seen to be in the 'trend' as a young person, you were generally not accepted into the 'in-crowd'. Drug use in this era was also very common, again to be accepted by your peers, one would need to be seen using drugs or drinking alcohol freely as a form of rebellion against those who opposed it. Even today, many of these types of trends have not change for the younger generation.

Schlaadt & Shannon (14), suggest a similar view that one will copy the behavioral patterns and activities of others and peers as a direction of gaining acceptance by those within the group and a way of learning social behavior. The peer group pressure has a huge influence on young adults who just want to be socially accepted by others, a chance to 'fit in'. By being accepted allows young adults to gain more self-confidence but at the risk of indulging in the consumption of alcohol or illicit drugs.

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McAllister, Moore & Makkai (11), suggest that perhaps the physical properties of alcohol or drugs can lead to the addiction of a person of such substances whereupon if that person was to cease his/her use of a drug, pending long term use, places that person at risk of going into withdrawal. Such drugs include alcohol, opiates, barbiturates and other substances also have the properties that contribute to the process of addiction. However, McAllister, Moore & Makkai (11), also suggest that drugs such as marijuana, LSD and cocaine may not be addictive in the physical sense as a result of their properties. However, as a result of the effects endured upon their use may lead a person to become dependant on that particular type of drug because of their psychological addictive properties.

The author believes that if a parent, being that of the mother, was dependent upon a certain drug and was a long-term user during her stage of the pregnancy, may pass on the craving of drug addiction to her unborn child. Thus upon the birth of that child, having shared her mothers addiction whilst in the womb, would now also become dependent on drugs even though he/she is too young to even know what a drug is. As the child grows and becomes a young adult, he/she could more likely become a drug user. In an attempt to stop a child such as this becoming addicted, he/she would need to have medical support at a very early age within a drug re-habilitation clinic to give the child the best chance of having a normal life without the use of drugs.

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Such is the want or desire to use the drug, he/she very quickly becomes dependant on the drug believing that life will become unbearable if they do not have another dose and to then stop using the drug appears to be non existent. McAllister, Moore & Makkai (11), suggest that some of the reasons of drug abuse in the psychological field may be a result of low self-esteem, problems with self image or ego, problems associated with disfunctional families, the feeling of being rejected by society, or perhaps the person has been subjected to a personal tragedy who tries to escape the pain and reality through the use of drugs are just a few. Each person with a drug addiction are all individual cases with individual reasons on why they became drug dependent, even though some may appear to be similar in other ways.

The author believes that from the information presented within the readings, there is no one cause of addiction and that all three have some form of relationship. Each area whether physical, psychological or social all have some form of link between them. Some perhaps more than others, however, it appears that there is a dist0inct relation. For example, the person who uses drugs or alcohol only as a social activity, may become dependent upon them to enable them to communicate with others more easily; therefore, psychologically their mental ability to socialise without alcohol or drugs becomes a problem. Or the fact that the mere properties of a substance such as marijuana also allows a person to relax and converse with others without the fear of apprehension.

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Conclusion

There are many theories on the subject of drug addiction. Drugs and alcohol have been available for centuries all over the world. Today, the drug problem is every increasing amongst the younger generation. It is impossible to police every young adult who indulges in the consumption of alcohol or illicit substances, and at times, such indulges lead to a fatal result. There may not be any real short term answer to this problem; however, by educating those who are able to be educated and assist those who have already become drug users via rehabilitation clinics etc, may lessen the fatalities and allow those who are trying to assist others help understand some of the problems associated with drug abuse.

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References

Homel, R. & Bull, M. (16). Under the Influence. Alcohol, Drugs and Crime. Chapter 7 in Crime and Justice An Australian Textbook in Criminology by K.M. Hazelhurst (ed). Melbourne LBC Information.

Miller, B.F. & Keane, C.B. (187). Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health, p 18.

McAllister, I., Moore, R. & Makkai, T. (11). Some Theoretical Perspectives in Drugs in Australian Society by these authors. Sydney Longman Cheshire, 11, Chapter 1.

Schlaadt, R.G. & Shannon, P.T. (14). Theories of Drug Use. Chapter in Drugs Use, Misuse, and Abuse by R.G. Schlaadt & P.T. Shannon. New jersey Prentice Hall, 14.

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Bibliography

Homel, R. & Bull, M. (16). Under the Influence. Alcohol, Drugs and Crime. Chapter 7 in Crime and Justice An Australian Textbook in Criminology by K.M. Hazelhurst (ed). Melbourne LBC Information.

Mason, G., & Wilson, P.R. (15). Alcohol and Crime. In Issues in Crime, Mortality and Justice. P.Wilson (Ed.). Canberra Australian Institute of Criminology, 15, pp. 145 158.

Miller, B.F. & Keane, C.B. (187). Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health, p 18.

McAllister, I., Moore, R. & Makkai, T. (11). Some Theoretical Perspectives in Drugs in Australian Society by these authors. Sydney Longman Cheshire, 11, Chapter 1.

Peele, S. Addiction to an Experience. Chapter 5 in The Meaning of Addiction Compulsive Experience and its Interpretation. Mass Lexington Books.

Schlaadt, R.G. & Shannon, P.T. (14). Theories of Drug Use. Chapter in Drugs Use, Misuse, and Abuse by R.G. Schlaadt & P.T. Shannon. New jersey Prentice Hall, 14.

Witters, W.L., & Venturelli, P.J. (188). Drugs and the Law. Chapter 1 in Drugs and Society by W.L. Witters & P.J. Venturelli, Boston

Please note that this sample paper on Drugs, Alcohol and Crime is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Drugs, Alcohol and Crime, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Drugs, Alcohol and Crime will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Ozone Depletion

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Ozone Depletion. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Ozone Depletion paper right on time.

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Ozone Depletion

Is out planet in danger? Are we losing our protection from the sun's UV rays? These are a couple of frequently asked questions when people talk about ozone depletion.

The Earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers. We live in the troposphere, where most of the weather occurs; like rain and snow. It extends from the Earth's surface up to about ten kilometers in altitude. The stratosphere is above the troposphere. It extends from around ten to fifty kilometers in altitude. Most airline traffic occurs in the lower stratosphere. There is a little area between the troposphere and the stratosphere. This narrow region is called the tropopause.

Ozone is a molecule that has three oxygen atoms and occurs naturally in the Earth's atmosphere. Out of each ten million air molecules, only three million ozone molecules are present. However, even the small amount of ozone plays a key role in the Earth's atmosphere. Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere. It is strange that at ground level it is a health hazard and in the stratosphere we could not live without it. Ozone absorbs a portion of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. UV radiation has had many harmful effects on the Earth such as causing different types of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to crops, certain materials, and sea life. The ozone layer is thinnest around the tropics, and thicker toward the poles. The amount of ozone above a point on the Earth's surface is measured in Dobson units or DU. It is typically measured 60 DU near the tropics and higher other places. There are also large fluctuations between different seasons and sunspots. There have been natural deductions in the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere, but have been followed by recovery. Scientists have records that detail the normal ozone levels during these natural cycles. Then scientists found convincing evidence showing that the ozone shield is being depleted well beyond changes due to natural processes.

For a long time, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were thought of as miracle substances. They are stable, nonflammable, low in toxicity, and inexpensive to produce. CFCs have found many uses as refrigerants, solvents, foam blowing agents, and in other smaller applications. All of these are chlorine-containing compounds. Any compounds that release chlorine or bromine when they break down can most likely damage the protective ozone layer. For example, methyl chloroform, a solvent, and carbon tetrachloride, an industrial chemical both contain chlorine. Halons, fire extinguishing agents, and methyl bromide, a soil fumigant, contain bromine. All of these compounds have long enough lifetimes to allow them to be transported to the stratosphere by wind.

CFCs are very stable and do not dissolve in rain, so it is easy for them to reach the stratosphere. Only exposure to strong UV radiation breaks them down. When this happens, the CFC molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules.

Large fires and certain types of marine life produce one stable form of chlorine that reaches the stratosphere. However, numerous experiments have shown that CFCs and other chemicals produce around 85% of the chlorine in the stratosphere, while natural sources only contribute 15%.

An example of ozone depletion is the annual ozone hole over Antarctica. It has occurred during the Antarctic spring since the early 180's. It isn't really a hole in the ozone layer; it is a large area of the stratosphere with extremely low amounts of ozone. Ozone levels fall by over 60% during the worst years. Studies show that the amount of ultraviolet light at the surface can double during the annual ozone hole in the Antarctic. Why the Antarctic? During the winter polar night, sunlight does not reach the South Pole. A circumpolar wind develops in the middle to lower stratosphere. These winds are called the polar vortex. They isolate the air over the polar region. Because there is no sunlight, the air in the polar vortex can get very cold. So cold that extraordinary clouds can form once the air temperature gets to below about 80 degrees Celsius below zero. These clouds are called Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs), but they are not like the clouds you normally see. They aren't made of water droplets, they first form as nitric acid trihydrate. As the temperature gets even colder, larger droplets of water ice with nitric acid dissolved in them can form. Their exact composition is still being studied. These PSCs are very crucial for ozone loss to occur.

Thus, ozone depletion is a global issue and not just a problem at the South Pole. Research has also shown that ozone depletion occurs over North America, Europe, Asia, and much of Africa, Australia, and South America. Over the U.S., ozone levels have fell 5 to 10% depending on the season. The reduction of ozone levels means higher levels of UV rays reaching the Earth's surface.

The world's reaction to the concern of the ozone layer in the 170's, led to a ban on the use of CFCs as aerosol propellants in several countries, including the United States. However, the production of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances grew rapidly after new uses were discovered. Throughout the 180's, more uses came for CFCs and the nations became more concerned about the chemicals harming the ozone layer. In 185, the Vienna Convention was adopted to formalize international cooperation on this issue. Other efforts resulted in signing the Montreal Protocol in 187. The original protocol would have reduced the production of CFCs by half in 18. Worse damage started to show in the ozone layer so it was decided to completely end the production of halons by the beginning of 14 and of CFCs by the beginning of 16 in developed countries.

In conclusion, I think that our planet could be in danger because of the depletion of the ozone layer. The ozone concentration in the atmosphere has gone down in the last twenty years. I do think that if our planet is in danger, the actual danger wouldn't come for a long time, especially because we are trying to keep the ozone from vanishing. Obviously we are slowly losing our protection from the sun's UV rays also. I don't think that right now it is a really big deal. However, in the future I think it might be more of a concern because more and more rays will be coming though the ozone if we keep damaging it. To keep the ozone layer from depleting, I think we should not use any substances that release CFC's, if at all possible. Try to find other things we could use in place of them so that we are not damaging our environment. Otherwise I do not see a solution to this environmental problem. There will always be something trying to damage our atmosphere.

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