Aids

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Introduction

AIDS is a life and death issue. To have the AIDS disease is at present a sentence of slow but inevitable death. Ive already lost one friend to AIDS. I may soon lose others. My own sexual behavior and that of many of my friends has been profoundly altered by it. In my part of the country, one man in 10 may already be carrying the AIDS virus. While the figures may currently be less in much of the rest of the country, this is changing rapidly. There currently is neither a cure, nor even an effective treatment, and no vaccine either. But there are things that have been PROVEN immensely effective in slowing the spread of this hideously lethal disease. In this essay I hope to present this information. History and

Overview

AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Defficiency Disease. It is caused by a virus.

The disease originated somewhere in Africa about 0 years ago. There it first appeared as a mysterious ailment afflicting primarily heterosexuals of both sexes. It probably was spread especially fast by primarily female prostitutes there. AIDS has already become a crisis of STAGGERING proportions in parts of Africa. In Zaire, it is estimated that over twenty percent of the adults currently carry the virus. That figure is increasing. And what occurred there will, if no cure is found, most likely occur here among heterosexual folks.

AIDS was first seen as a disease of gay males in this country. This was a result of the fact that gay males in this culture in the days before AIDS had an average of 00 to 400 new sexual contacts per year. This figure was much higher than common practice among heterosexual (straight) men or women. In addition, it turned out that rectal sex was a particularly effective way to transmit the disease, and rectal sex is a common practice among gay males. For these reasons, the disease spread in the gay male population of this country immensely more quickly than in other populations. It became to be thought of as a gay disease. Because the disease is spread primarily by exposure of ones blood to infected blood or semen, I.V. drug addicts who shared needles also soon were identified as an affected group. As the AIDS epidemic began to affect increasingly large fractions of those two populations (gay males and IV drug abusers), many of the rest of this society looked on smugly, for both populations tended to be despised by the mainstream of society here.

But AIDS is also spread by heterosexual sex. In addition, it is spread by blood transfusions. New born babies can acquire the disease from infected mothers during pregnancy. Gradually more and more mainstream folks got the disease. Most recently, a member of congress died of the disease. Finally, even the national news media began to join in the task of educating the public to the notion that AIDS can affect everyone.

Basic medical research began to provide a few bits of information, and some help. The virus causing the disease was isolated and identified. The AIDS virus turned out to be a very unusual sort of virus. Its genetic material was not DNA, but RNA. When it infected human cells, it had its RNA direct the synthesis of viral DNA. While RNA viruses are not that uncommon, very few RNA viruses reproduce by setting up the flow of information from RNA to DNA. Such reverse or retro flow of information does not occur at all in any DNA virus or any other living things. Hence, the virus was said to belong to the rare group of virues called Retro Viruses. Research provided the means to test donated blood for the presence of the antibodies to the virus, astronomically reducing the chance of ones getting AIDS from a blood transfusion. This was one of the first real breakthroughs. The same discoveries that allowed us to make our blood bank blood supply far safer also allowed us to be able to tell (in most cases) whether one has been exposed to the AIDS virus using a simple blood test.

The Types of AIDS Infection

When the AIDS virus gets into a persons body, the results can be broken down into three general types of situations AIDS disease, ARC, and asymptomatic seropositive condition.

The AIDS disease is characterized by having ones immune system devastated by the AIDS virus. One is said to have the disease if one contracts particular varieties (Pneumocystis, for example) of pneumonia, or one of several particular varieties of otherwise rare cancers (Kaposis Sarcoma, for example). This disease is inevitably fatal. Death occurs often after many weeks or months of expensive and painful hospital care. Most folks with the disease can transmit it to others by sexual contact or other exposure of an uninfected persons blood to the blood or semen of the infected person.

There is also a condition referred to as ARC (Aids Related Complex). In this situation, one is infected with the AIDS virus and ones immune system is compromised, but not so much so that one gets the (ultimately lethal) cancers or pneumonias of the AIDS disease. One tends to be plagued by frequent colds, enlarged lymph nodes, and the like. This condition can go on for years. One is likely to be able to infect others if one has ARC. Unfortunately, all those with ARC are currently felt to eventually progress to getting the full blown AIDS disease.

There are, however, many folks who have NO obvious signs of disease what so ever, but when their blood serum is tested they show positive evidence of having been exposed to the virus. This is on the basis of the fact that antibodies to the AIDS virus are found in their blood. Such asymptomatic but seropositive folks may or may not carry enough virus to be infectious. Most sadly, though, current research and experience with the disease would seem to indicate that EVENTUALLY nearly all folks who are seropostive will develop the full blown AIDS disease. There is one ray of hope here It may in some cases take up to 15 years or more between ones becoming seropositive for the AIDS virus and ones developing the disease. Thus, all those millions (soon to be tens and hundreds of millions) who are now seropositive for AIDS are under a sentence of death, but a sentence that may not be carried out for one or two decades in a significan fraction of cases. Medical research holds the possibility of commuting that sentence, or reversing it.

There is one other fact that needs to be mentioned here because it is highly significant in determining recommendations for safe sexual conduct which will be discussed below Currently, it is felt that after exposure to the virus, most folks will turn seropositive for it (develop a positive blood test for it) within four months. It is currently felt that if you are sexually exposed to a person with AIDS and do not become seropositive within six months after that exposure, you will never become seropositive as a result of that exposure.

Just to confuse the issue a little, there are a few folks whose blood shows NO antibodies to the virus, but from whom live virus has been cultured. Thus, if one is seronegative, it is not absolute proof one is not exposed to the virus. This category of folks is very hard to test for, and currently felt to be quite rare. Some even speculate that such folks may be rare examples of those who are immune to the effects of the virus, but this remains speculation. It is not known if such folks can also transmit the virus.

Transmission of AIDS

The AIDS virus is extremely fragile, and is killed by exposure to mild detergents or to chlorox, among other things. AIDS itself may be transmitted by actual virus particles, or by the transmission of living human CELLS that contain AIDS viral DNA already grafted onto the human DNA. Or both. Which of these two mechanisms is the main one is not known as I write this essay. But the fact remains that it is VERY hard to catch AIDS unless one engages in certain specific activities.

What will NOT transmit AIDS?

Casual contact (shaking hands, hugging, sharing tools) cannot transmit AIDS. Although live virus has been recovered from saliva of AIDS patients, the techniques used to do this involved concentrating the virus to extents many thousands of times greater than occurs in normal human contact, such as kissing (including deep or French kissing). Thus, there remains no solid evidence that even deep kissing can transmit AIDS. Similarly, there is no evidence that sharing food or eating utensils with an AIDS patient can transmit the virus. The same is true for transmission by sneezing or coughing. There just is no current evidence that the disease can be transmitted that way.The same may be true even for BITING,though here there may be some increased (though still remote) chance of transmitting the disease.

The above is very important. It means that there is NO medical reason WHAT SO EVER to recommend that AIDS suffers or AIDS antibody positive folks be quarrantined. Such recommendations are motivated either by ignorance or by sinister desires to set up concentration camps. Combined with the fact that the disease is already well established in this country, the above also means that there is no rational medical basis for immigration laws preventing visits by AIDS suffers or antibody positive persons.

The above also means that friends and family and coworkers of AIDS patients and seropostive persons have nothing to fear from such casual contact. There is no reason to not show your love or concern for a friend with AIDS by embracing the person. Indeed, there appears still to be NO rational basis for excluding AIDS suffers from food preparation activity. Even if an AIDS suffer cuts his or her finger and bleeds into the salad or soup, most of the cells and virus will die, in most cases, before the food is consumed. In addition, it is extremely difficult to get successfully attacked by AIDS via stuff you eat.

AIDS cannot be transmitted by the act of GIVING blood to a blood bank. All equipment used for such blood donation is sterile, and is used just once, and then discarded.

How is AIDS transmitted?

Sexual activity is one of the primary ways AIDS is transmitted. AIDS is transmitted particulary by the transmission of blood or semen of an infected person into contact with the blood of an uninfected person. Sex involving penetration of the penis into either the vagina of a woman or the rectum of either a woman or a man has a very high risk of transmitting the disease. It is felt to be about four times MORE likely for an infected male to transmit AIDS to an uninfected woman in the course of vaginal sex than it is likely for an infected woman to transmit AIDS to an uninfected male. This probably relates to the greater area of moist tissue in a womans vagina, and to the relative liklihood of microscopic tears to occur in that tissue during sex. But the bottom line is that AIDS can be transmitted in EITHER direction in the case of heterosexual sex. Transmission among lesbians (homosexual females) is rare.

Oral sex is an extremely common form of sexual activity among both gay and straight folks. Such activity involves contact of infected semen or vaginal secretions with the mouth, esophagus (the tube that connects the mouth with the stomach) and the stomach. AIDS virus and infected cells most certainly cannot survive the acid environment of the stomach. Yet, it is still felt that there is a chance of catching the disease by having oral sex with an infected person. The chance is probably a lot smaller than in the case of vaginal or rectal sex, but is still felt to be significant.

As mentioned above, AIDS is also transmitted among intravenous drug users by the sharing of needles. Self righteous attitudes by the political leaders of this country at local, state, and national levels have repeatedly prevented the very rational approach of providing free access to sterile intravenous equipment for IV drug users. This measure, when taken promptly in Amsterdam, was proven to greatly and SIGNIFICANTLY slow the spread of the virus in that population. The best that rational medical workers have succeeded in doing here in San Francisco is distribute educational leaflets and cartoons to the I.V. drug abusing population instructing them in the necessity of their rinsing their works with chlorox before reusing the same needle in another person. Note that even if you dont care what happens to I.V. drug abusers, the increase in the number of folks carrying the virus ultimately endangers ALL living persons. Thus, the issue is NOT what you morally think of I.V. drug addicts, but one of what is the most rational way to slow the spread of AIDS in all populations.

Testing of donated blood for AIDS has massivly reduced the chance of catching AIDS from blood transfusions. But a very small risk still remains. To further reduce that risk, efforts have been made to use autotransfusions in cases of elective surgery (surgery that can be planned months in advance). Autotransfusion involves the patient storing their own blood a couple of weeks prior to their own surgery, to be used during the surgery if needed. Similary, setting up donations of blood from friends and family known to be antibody negative and at low risk for AIDS prior to schedualed surgery further can decrease the already small risks from transfusion.

AIDS and SEX What are the rational options?

The sexual revolution of the 160s has been stopped dead in its tracks by the AIDS epidemic. The danger of contracting AIDS is so real now that it has massively affected the behavior of both gay and straight folks who formerly had elected to lead an active sexual life that included numerous new sexual contacts.

Abstinence

The safest option regarding AIDS and sex is total abstinence from all sexual contact. For those who prefer to indulge in sexual contact, this is often far too great a sacrifice. But it IS an option to be considered.

Safe Sex

For those who wish to have sexual contact with folks on a relatively casual basis, there have been devised rules for safe sex. These rules are very strict, and will be found quite objectionable by most of us who have previously enjoyed unrestricted sex. But to violate these rules is to risk unusually horrible death. Once one gets used to them, tho, the rule for safe sex do allow for quite acceptable sexual enjoyment in most cases.

For those who wish to indulge in pentration of the vagina or rectum by a penis The penis MUST be sheathed in a condom or rubber. This must be done religiously, and NO exceptions are allowed. A condom must be used by a man even when he is receiving oral sex. Cunnilingus (oral stimulation of a womans gentitals by the mouth of a lover) is NOT considerd to be safe sex. Safe sex includes mutual masturbation, and the stimultion of one genitals by anothers hand (provided there are no cuts in the skin on that hand). But manual stimulation of anothers genitals is NOT safe if one has cuts on ones hands, unless one is wearing a glove.

Note that even when one is conscientiously following the recommendations for safe sex, accidents can happen. Condoms can break. One may have small cuts or tears in ones skin that one is unaware of. Thus, following rules for safe sex does NOT guarantee that one will not get AIDS. It does, however, greatly reduce the chances. There are many examples of sexaully active couples where one member has AIDS disease and the other remains seronegative even after many months of safe sex with the diseased person. It is particularly encouraging to note that, due to education programs among San Francisco gay males, the incidence of new cases of AIDS infection among that high risk group has dropped massively. Between practice of safe sex and a significant reduction in the number of casual sexual contacts, the spread of AIDS is being massively slowed in that group. Similar responsible action MUST be taken by straight folks to further slow the spread of AIDS, to give our researchers time to find the means to fight it.

Monogamy

For those who would have sexual activity, the safest approach in this age of AIDS is monogamous sex. Specifically, both parties in a couple must commit themselves to not having sex with anyone else. At that time they should take AIDS antibody tests. If the tests are negative for both, they must practice safe sex until both members of the couple have been greater than six months since sexual contact with anyone else. At that time the AIDS blood test is repeated. If both tests remain negative six months after ones last sexual contact with any other party, current feeling is that it is now safe to have unprotected sex. Note that this approach is recommended especially for those who wish to have children, to prevent the chance of having a child be born infected with AIDS, getting it from an infected mother. Note also that this approach can be used by groups of three or more people, but it must be adhered to VERY strictly.

What to AVOID

Unscrupulous folks have begun to sell the idea that one should pay to take an AIDS antibody test, then carry an ID card that certifies one as AIDS antibody negative, as a ticket to being acceptable in a singles bar. This is criminal greed and stupidity. First, one can turn antibody positive at any time. Even WEEKLY testing will not pick this change up soon enough to prevent folks certified as negative from turning positive between tests. Much worse, such cards are either directly or implicitly promoted as a SUBSTITUTE for safe sex practices. This can only hasten the spread of the disease.

If you want to learn your antibody status, be sure to do so ANONYMOUSLY. Do NOT get the test done by any agency that requires your real name, address, or any other identifying information. Fortunately, in San Francisco, there is a public place to get AIDS antibody testing where you may identify yourself only as a number. Tho that place has a three month long waiting list for testing, there are other private clinics where one may have the test done for cash, and may leave any false name one wishes. The reason I suggest this is that currently there are some very inappropriate reactions by government and business to folks known to be antibody positive. Protect yourself from such potential persection by preventing your antibody status from being a matter of record. That information is for you, your lover(s), and (if need be) your physician. And for NO one else.

There currently is NO treatment for AIDS (this includes AZT) that shows significant promise.

In Conclusion

It is my own strongly held view, and that of the medical and research community world wide, that the AIDS epidemic is a serious problem, with the potential to become the worst plague this species has ever known. This is SERIOUS business. VASTLY greater sums should be spent on searching for treatments and vaccines. On the other hand, we feel strongly that this is merely a disease, not an act by a supernatural power. And while it does not seem likely we will find either a cure or a vaccine in the forseeable future, it may be that truly effective treatments that can indefinitely prolong the life of AIDS victims may be found in the next few years. When science and technology do finally fully conquer AIDS, we can go back to deciding what sort and how much sex to have with who ever we choose on the basis of our own personal choice, and not by the coercion of a speck of proteins and RNA. May that time come soon. In the mean time, we must all do what we can to slow the spread of this killer. This article is intended to help accomplish that. Please circulate it as widely as possible.

Please note that this sample paper on aids is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on aids, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on aids will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Chain Of Hearts- Jimmy's Diary

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Creative Responses To Chain Of HeartsAn Truong

Dear journal,

I made friends with Peter Drysdale today, three weeks in at Pucka. Two hours of marching in the scorching sunlight and the unremitting sound of the sergeant in charge screaming out orders were just enough to drive anybody to the point of insanity. The lucky bastard took the pleasure of standing in shade the whole time.

He was having fun bellowing this and that at everyone who represented vulnerability and all we wanted to do was take a stand and beat the living daylights out of him. He was on the verge of abusing sarcasm and took his time hauling Private Jenson out in front of everyone, humiliated and abused. The poor kid.

My feet were killing me, blisters over blisters forming on my soles. It was excruciating, so bad I practically needed to clench my teeth to stop the pain. My throat felt raw with thirst. Even though it was a sweltering day, we were restricted from the water supplies.

Over and over in my head I cursed. A million thoughts rolled over in my head, so quick I only had time to focus on the main cause of my suffering. I don't want to be a friggin' soldier, march around all day with blisters on my feet. I want to fix cars. But I marched. And I saluted. I did as I was told, thinking the whole time I would run away, fake an identity, go to New Guinea and work at a coffee plantation where I knew a bloke who could help me get around.

I caught my perfect opportunity to make fun of the situation when the sergeant turned his back for a moment. I thought I ought to put the moment to use. I turned to Peter Drysdale, commonly known as Blue, who stood beside me in line. Mum said this would be good fun, I told him. And it ain't!

I didn't intend for it to be funny, but I guess it really was since Blue tried to stifle his laughter. I starting grinning myself, and soon we burst into laughter. The sergeant spun around and spotted us having a grand time. Even though he was hollering at the top of lungs, his face turning a bright red, we couldn't help but laugh hysterically.

We had hell to pay after that, but getting to laugh in his face was definitely worth it. We had latrine duty and extra kitchen duties to see to, as well as an extra hour of parading. For the next five days, all of them hitting a dreadful forty degrees, we will be banned from swimming.

Maybe turning up to these extra duties may help our friendship blossom, and I hope it will. Blue seems like a really great person as well as a good friend.

Jimmy

Dear journal,

Blue shocked us all with the bravery he displayed today. We were in enemy territory, snipers all around. The mere sound of rifles firing got our hearts racing, our knees weak with trembling. Looking for cover proved to be the greatest complication, especially with snipers targeting us from every angle.

Blue and I were huddled behind a mound of dirt, panting heavily as we recovered from the exhausting sprint to a more promising cover. Shots were being fired all over the place, bullets biting into the soils at our heels. I wrapped my arms over my head, silently praying that we'd make it back in one piece. While I was cowering beneath my arms, not daring to get some shots back at the enemy, Blue kept his chin up, a defiant glint in his eyes. For a puzzling moment I watched him shift from foot to foot. I yelled to him over the bullets and explosions, demanding to know what he was up to.

We locked gazes and the desperate look in his eyes gave it all away. He was going out. Whatever his intentions were, it was an outrageous one.

I'm going after Tim Matheson.

Those simple words numbed my body, rendered me incapable of speech. Before I could hold him back, Blue went for it. Everybody shouted his name, told him not to be so damned stupid, told him that the medi-chopper was on its way. But being the fearless guy that he was, Blue refused to lay low.

He made his way into a swamp where Tim was screaming, both legs blown off, bleeding to death as he lay half drowning in a foot of water. Blue snatched little Tim up and ran blindly back to cover. Halfway there a bullet ripped through the air and sank into his leg. Blue went down, tumbled over in agony. Willing the pain to go away, Blue forced himself to carry on, grabbed Tim back up and began his sprint back.

Somehow he managed to drag Tim back to cover, bullets whizzing through the air all around him. Miraculously, he made it back in time to begin working on his wound. Blue ripped his shoelace off and tied it around his leg, stopping his bleeding by just a notch.

It was truly the most selfless act any of us had ever witnessed. Blue was hospitalised in Vuong Tou for a month afterwards. Tim had no feet and legs left but he was still alive, still alive in hospital after months.

Blue is beyond doubt a hero.

Jimmy

Dear journal,

Binh Ba was bodies. The bits of them all over the place. The shouting, the tanks, the flying mortars coming down. The scrambling old women, the kids running to get away. Blue and I were scurrying from hut to hut like lunatics, the tank following behind. We threw the grenades blindly, not knowing who was who, what was what. Anything that moved posed a threat.

The smoke, screaming and the terror were etched into my memory then, and everything seemed surreal, like time was moving in slow motion. It was a bloodbath, my surroundings blurred with red before my eyes.

Over a hundred nogs dead at the end of it, strewn all over the bleak village square, bits of them hanging from tree branches, in ditches. Not a single hut was left standing, every pig and chicken slaughtered. And we were the cause of it.

My mind was almost a blank, the work of it all heaved upon my shoulders. My purpose here was to kill, to slaughter lives that were competent to carry on perfectly fine. It almost felt like…like we were murderers.

When it was all over, Blue's face was ashen with fatigue, eyes like burnt holes. I've had it mate, he said. This time I've had it. At first I shrugged it off, thinking that everybody had had enough. But when I replayed those words again in my mind, I realized it had a certain edge to it, something cold, blanked-out, something final. I decided to follow him around to the back of a tank.

I found Blue reloading his rifle, and instinctively I knew what his intentions were. Acting with all my instincts, I jumped on him from behind, ripped the rifle from his grip and kicked it a distance away. Blue struggled under my firm clasp on his arms as I wrestled the big guy to the ground.

It took me every ounce of strength I could muster to hold him down, ignoring the shoves and groans of Get off me, ya bastard! I told him not to be a bloody fool, told him that we only had a few months left before we were able to go home and that one day this will be nothing but a memory.

At that the struggling slowly died and Blue's body went limp. I got off him, and we sat there in the dirt avoiding each other's eyes. I reassured him once again.

It'll be nothing but a memory, Blue. I waved loosely at the smoking devastation and death surrounding us, my voice strangely distant, even to myself. One day all this will just be a memory…

Blue nodded his head and stared down at his trembling hands. You're right, he said. One day…it will be gone. It'll just be a memory.

Jimmy

Please note that this sample paper on Chain Of Hearts- Jimmy's Diary is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Chain Of Hearts- Jimmy's Diary, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Chain Of Hearts- Jimmy's Diary will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Missisippi text response

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Ward- Calm, Determined, Following Procedure, Passionate, educated

Ward, like Anderson wants to get to the bottom of the murder as soon as possible. But unlike Anderson Ward is very cool about the approaching the residents and attempts to be calm, collected and nice. After being led around like ducks Ward finds himself frustrated and calls in 100 extra FBI agents to search the pond for any small speck of evidence, obviously Ward at first refuses to disobey procedures, insisting that they must follow them. This is shown when Anderson requests to do things his way. Ward although head incredibly determined in solving the crime. And also unlike Anderson of the operation doesn¡¯t have as much experience as Anderson. Ward as most likely came out of college and moved into comfortable position in the FBI

Anderson- Brash, Tough, experienced, direct, Cheeky

Anderson can be hot-headed and agitated very quickly as shown many times in the movie. He is not afraid to use violence to get what he wants, a quick insult from Frank and it becomes pain for Frank, as Anderson knows some moves of his own. Anderson has made it clear that he once lived in Mississippi and has obviously worked his way up the ranks unlike Ward who was placed in a very high position to begin with. Anderson doesn¡¯t like to play games if he wants answers he expects straight answers, he doesn¡¯t ploy any mind games. Although he is very serious he can be very sarcastic also as he says ¡°Baseballs the only time a black man gets to swing a bat at a white man without starting a riot.¡±

Pell- Devious, atrocious, angry, hateful, disgrace

Pell is Part of the Klu Klux Klan and racist group. Pell was one of the people which helped in the disgraceful killing of the three kids. When Mrs. Pell was holding the black baby Pell was obviously mocking him saying how cute they were. When Pell discovered that his wife had helped Anderson he was enraged and viciously attacked her. He is Deputy of the police and is a disgrace to the name.

Mrs. Pell- Brave, Trusting, likes Black people, Helpful, Important

Mrs. Pell was possibly the most important source of evidence in the whole movie. Without her assistance Ward and Anderson may have never found the truth behind the crime. She clearly supports the black community wants to help. It was very brave of her to decide to help Anderson as it would put her in a serious disadvantage. She obviously trusted Anderson.

Frank- Big, Stupid, Racist, murderer, follower

Frank is a big man who is also part of the Klu Klux Klan and also involved in the killing of the civil rights workers. Frank is not the most intellectually developed person with his group, this is shown as he doesn¡¯t make many decisions himself and rely on others to make the choice for him. He merely is a puppet chosen to take the hit. Frank is an extreme Racist and hates the black community with a lot of passion. When asked if he would ever kill a black man he replied ¡°wouldn¡¯t think any more than wringing a cat¡¯s neck.¡±

Aaron- courageous, faithful, innocent, young

Aaron is a small black kid who Ward and Anderson Approach and ask for his assistance. At first he was reluctant and his father didn¡¯t approve of him helping the FBI but eventually Aaron even at his young tender age decided to help, despite knowing the Klu Klux Klan would be after him. The KKK waited for him outside the church and as the black community exited the building they mercilessly attacked them. Aaron just knelt and prayed but the frank booted his head and told him to stay away from the FBI.

The Black Community- Hopeful, quiet, scared, discriminated, poor

The Black community in Mississippi Burning had done nothing wrong, they had committed no crime, no acts against anyone yet they were being beaten around as the white community wished. They must¡¯ve hoped for it too end, prayed for it to end every day. Afraid of the next time they would be terrorized, it could be tomorrow or it could within five minutes.

The KKK- Evil, Blind, Sadistic, cruel, mislead

The KKK is and organization which hates and discriminates against all races except Anglo-Saxons. In Mississippi Burning the KKK have many meetings and generally all agree on the same thing, everyone on earth isn¡¯t as important Anglo-Saxons. Although their views are generally wrong and quite appalling, I believe Clayton Townsley are misleading them and them being as blind as they are will eat up anything he says.

The Mayor- Corrupt, weak, lost, unworthy, Coward

The Mayor didn¡¯t play a serious role in Mississippi burning as he didn¡¯t do very much. They main problem with the Mayor was that he knew the exact details on what the Klan was planning to do to those civil rights workers and yet he didn¡¯t have the courage to say or do anything. He was the mayor for god sakes and if he can¡¯t handle the pressure he shouldn¡¯t be mayor, that¡¯s probably what he decided to in the end when he killed himself.

The White Community that watch and do nothing- Scared, Protecting Family, Watching, Careless

The White Community that watch ad do nothing is quite disappointing. If the white community would say or do something maybe something could have been done to prevent all this turmoil. Yet I can understand why they did not speak up. If they spoke up and nothing changed, all would have been for nothing and most likely the Klan would be after them and their loved ones. So to protect themselves from possible hurt they have chosen not to talk, which is a shame.

The White Community that protest with the blacks- Brave, thoughtful, has an opinion, righteous,

The White Community which supported the protest is incredibly brave to march for the black people in front of the white community and especially the KKK. These people are clearly determined to make a point. They have done the right thing even if they are going against the odds. At the start of the movie there are only a few white people involved but as the movie progresses more and more join in.

Mississippi in 164- Harsh, Racist, traditional, Independent, unlike rest of America

Mississippi in 164 was a very harsh place. The place is old and the people refuse change. They don¡¯t want people how to run their state. They don¡¯t want the more northern states to give them orders and rules. Even though in the north racism was beginning to decrease and subdue, there has been no apparent change during this time period. Still very racist towards those of different backgrounds.

The Civil rights workers- victims, unlucky, youthful, unfair, and terrified

The Civil rights workers were the unlucky victims of the Klu Klux Klan. They were returning home when they were chased down and attacked by deputy Pell. Pell Gruesomely shot them all. They had not done anything wrong yet since they were labeled Nigger Lovers they were the enemy so they were killed. It was a terrible injustice and was totally unfair.

Clayton Townsley- Mastermind, Charismatic, smart, hateful, leader

Clayton Townsley was the Mastermind behind the killing of the Civil rights workers and all of the Klan¡¯s Actions. He may have been only a business man but he was a Charismatic Speaker, which was enough to earn him a position within the KKK. Combined with his hate for non Anglo-Saxons and a smart mouth he became an influential leader witch people in the movie looked up to.

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Due Process Rights

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The great promise of America that has made a British colony in the 50 States today is Freedom. Many Freedoms which still today cause people to flock to the United States. The history of these freedoms starts centuries ago and has developed, revolutionized, and persisted all the way through today. At the core of these Freedoms is the idea of Due Process, the idea that everyone has rights and freedom until they are deprived of them arbitrarily, or by the will of a just third party. Due process has been the most powerful force in American Criminal Justice since its creation and development. It has caused many people to win over the overwhelming odds in court cases and has presided over many righteous decisions that still affect cases today. Due process has also divided the country as public order advocates or individual rights supporters. The Development of Due Process is conceived from four important documents, the Magna Charta, The Declaration of Independence, The Declaration of Rights and Grievances, and the U.S. Constitution. The Magna Charta was an English document that gave citizens rights and protection from their ruling body, which in that case was the King of England. The Magna Charta was used by the U.S. to create the Bill of Rights, a part of the Constitution. The Declaration of Rights and Grievances, drafted in 1765, was the original document created by the colonies of their complaints against the crown. The British unfair trials amongst other tragedies were to be fought with Due Process and the creation of other laws to clear the complaints of the current system. This would lead to the start of the Revolutionary War, in 1775. From the aforementioned documents, we would derive the concept of Due Process, the idea that people should have the right to be fairly heard and tried in court before losing life, liberty, or justice. Due process also limits the government's ability to make laws, ensuring that they are fair and proper. The idea of Due Process and the American Criminal Justice system was furthered again with the creation of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution in 1776. The Constitution, the document known as the supreme law of the land included Bill of Rights, which were the first ten amendments discussing the freedoms and procedures to protect those freedoms in America. The fourth amendment applied specifically to Due Process, stating ,The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. This secured peoples right to be searched and violated by raids, but at the same time created great controversy in what was to be probably cause, an idea that would be developed and modified many times throughout history. The Fifth Amendment also supported due process in giving any citizen the right against self incrimination. Before their life, liberty, or freedom could be taken away someone other than their selves had to be a witness to their crime or have evidence to convict them. Before this, by force, people could be forced to testify as guilty despite their true innocence or guilt. Next, the sixth amendment changed the courtroom and due process by giving Americans the right to counsel. This gave anyone charged with a crime proper defense of their rights because many people were not able to defend themselves, not knowing the court system. In class the movie Gideon's Trumpets showed the revolution of right to counsel when he was not able to defend himself in court and convicted due entirely that fact. The Eighth amendment was the next milestone affecting Due Process. The Eighth amendment stated, Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. This protected life, liberty, and freedom even for those convicted of crimes. Several of the movies we watched in class dealt with prison life and cruel and unusual punishment that reoccurred there. With the booming economy caused by slavery at the time, the development of due process slowed. Then, with the Civil War resolved by the victory of the North, the development moved on. The Thirteenth amendment, in 1865, abolished slavery, giving rights to all peoples of the United States as citizens based on the origin of their birth and their time living in the country. This came from the overturning of the Dred Scott case of 1857, which gave the world the idea of separate but equal. Soon after, in 1868, the Fourteenth amendment further gave life, liberty, and freedom to everyone by declaring peoples votes would be counted equally and allowing anyone within certain qualifications to run for government positions. It also added the second due process clause that neither could any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or freedom without due process of law. The Warren court was the prominent force in the development of Due Process, and continued to support Due Process, but not through the creation of new laws or procedures, but through judicial review. This power gave the Supreme Court the ability to hear cases from lower level courts and make their own decision based on Constitution instead of State law. A classic example of the judicial review is the case of Marbury vs. Madison, 180, which Chief Justice Marshall redecided the case based on the a greater force than state law, the Constitution. This judicial review was again utilized in 1816, in the Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee. Warren would carry on this tradition in the modern courts making changes to what would become landmark cases to end the development of Due Process and move the United States in to the era we can classify as the Due Process Revolution. After the Warren Court applied the Fourteenth amendment to the states, the Due Process revolution began. The legal climate was changed in the overturning of several key cases. The Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Eighth, and Fourteenth amendments would all play key roles in the revolution along with the concept of Restorative vs. Redistributive Justice. The Due Process Revolution was officially launched with the overturning of the case Plessy vs. Ferguson(186) by the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka in 154. This case when put through judicial review by the Warren Court (15-16), declared that separate was not equal and that everyone must be incorporated together in all aspects, such as seating, public facilities, etc. The ideals that came from this case would also launch the Civil Rights Act of 164, which states, To enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes. The next step in the revolution was the case of the Silverthorne Lumber Company vs. United States. This case added to Due Process the idea of the Fruit of the Poisoned Tree, which specified that is evidence is taken illegally, then the evidence may not be used in a court of law. In this case, police broke into the lumber company and stole tax records that proved that the company was guilty of tax evasion. However the 10 case ruled it inconclusional based on not enough evidence due to the fact that the records were not taken into consideration. The Fourth amendment also played a part in the case of Mapp vs. Ohio (161) which overturned Wolf vs. Colorado(14), by saying that the Fourth amendment Exclusionary Rule from the case Weeks vs. US (114) was now applicable to the states individually. This was possible through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth amendment. The Fifth amendment was also a significant factor in the Due Process revolution. The double jeopardy clause, the idea that you cannot be tried twice for the same crime was applied to the states in 16 in the case of Benton vs. Maryland. This case overturned the previous case of Palko vs. Connecticut (17) where Palko was retried on a case where he was sentenced to prison and the second time he was tried for the same crime he was sentenced to death. The case of Escebedo vs. Illinois(164) also elaborated on the Fifth amendment, saying that once you move from investigating to accusing a person, a lawyer must be present for the proper defense and interpretation. Miranda vs. Arizona (166) also developed during this period adding onto the Fifth amendment that you must be read your Miranda Rights when taken into custody. The Sixth amendment was revolutionized with the cases of Gideon vs. Wainright (16), and several juvenile court procedings. The sixth amendment changed the courtroom and due process by giving Americans the right to counsel. This gave anyone charged with a crime proper defense of their rights because many people were not able to defend themselves, not knowing the court system. In class the movie Gideon's Trumpets showed the revolution of right to counsel when he was not able to defend himself in court and convicted due entirely that fact. His wrote to the Supreme Court who tried his case and gave him proper counsel to defend himself. Several court cases also changed the Sixth amendment to apply to juveniles convicted of crimes. They included Kent vs. US( 166), In re Gault (167), In re Winship (170), Breed vs, Jones (175), and Illinois vs. Montenez (16), which held that a concerned adult must accompany a child on trial. The Eighth amendment was revolutionized with the case of Robinson vs. California (16), which applied the Eighth amendment, the right against cruel and unusual punishment to the states. The case of Avery vs. Johnson also affected the Eighth amendment in 168 when it declared jailhouse lawyers legal, absent other legal resources. The case of Wolff vs. McDonnell (174) reversed the case Ruffin vs. Commonwealth of (1871), which made prisoners slaves of the state, and gave the prisoners new Constitutional protections, especially against cruel and unusual punishment. There was also great debate over whether the Eighth amendment supported Restorative or Redistributive Justice. These two types of justice focused on different aspects of criminals. Restorative focused activities and punishment on the consequences of the crime towards the public and individuals, while Redistributive focused on the offenders past behavior. The ideas of probation and parole were also questioned in the revolution within the Eighth amendment. The case of Morrisey vs. Brewer (17) was the landmark defining the specifications of parole, and the case Gagnon vs. Scarpelli in 17 set forth the standards for probation. The final adaptations to the Eighth amendment were about inmate conditions, it included Holt vs. Sarver which discussed shocking the conscience, Pell vs. Procunier (174) which dealt with the legal base of prisoner's rights, capital punishment cases Furman vs. Georgia in 17 and Gregg vs. Georgia in 176. The Fourteenth amendment began the Due Process Revolution and would conclude the revolution leading to the aftermath. The Fourteenth amendment gave the courts after Warren, Burger and Rehnquist the ability to again change the cases and ideal that ruled the amendments. Their more conservative interpretations created controversy in the way that amendments now affected citizens as opposed to their old meanings. During the Warren Court, there was the idea of, the development of, and the enforcement of Due Process. However, then came the aftermath, the Burger and Rehnquist courts, both of which were not happy with the previous work of the Warren Court. The many efforts of Warren and his supporters were not liked, even despised by Burger and Rehnquist, and they made valiant efforts to modify and overturn many of his landmarks. The main points prevalent in the Burger Court affecting the Warren Courts previous decisions were the Good Faith Exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule. The Burger Court lasted from 16 to 186. The Good Faith Exceptions modified the ideas of the 4th Amendment upon the Courts basis that, If a Law Enforcement Officer has acted in objective good faith, or their transgressions have been minor; the magnitude of the benefit conferred on such guilty defendants offends basic concepts of the criminal justice system. These ideas sprang from the case of U.S. vs. Leon in 184 where from surveillance of Leon talking to a confidant, police found probable cause to issue a warrant, and found a multitude of drugs in his three residences. The evidence was later suppressed in a court due to insufficient cause for a search warrant. The Exceptions came into play here eventually allowing the evidence based on the previous court statement. The Burger court also ruled on another case that year called Massachusetts vs. Sheppard (187), which found officers not having sufficient details for a search warrant. This changed the original Warren court outlines with the Mapp vs. Ohio case of 161, thereby modifying probable cause. The main points prevalent in the Rehnquist Court affecting the Warren Courts were the exceptions to the Miranda and Escebedo decisions. The Rehnquist Court is still in power today since its beginning in 186. The inevitable discovery doctrine modified Warren Courts case, and was created during the case of Brewer vs. Williams in 177, where a defendant was violated of his right to counsel. The public safety exception was created in concurrence with the case of New York vs. Quarles (184), where the publics safety was violated by Quarles possession of a weapon. The article attached to our handout emphasized the reforms to the 5th and 6th Amendments, discussing the case of U.S. vs. Dickerson. Because Dickerson had failed to have been read his Miranda rights, even though he did confess to the crime. The Miranda case was re-examined but only reaffirmed, not changed. This was a huge landmark in the Rehnquist court that caused much turmoil in the politics of the American criminal justice system. Beyond these landmarks in the Burger and Rehnquist Courts, other Warren decisions were modified, including the 8th Amendment, guarding prisoners against cruel and unusual punishment. The return of the Hands-Off Doctrine allowed for certain acts in the correctional system based on a case of Wilson vs. Seiter in 11. In this case a prisoner accused an Arkansas prison of abusing its inmates. The Doctrine required a deliberate indifference by the prison officials to be considered cruel and unusual treatment, due to the fact that not everything was containable in the prison system. The case of Sandin vs. Conner (15), ended with criminal system of the U.S. being revised to allow greater flexibility toward Redistributive justice, where the prisoner pays for his crimes along with his rehabilitation. The 14th Amendment was also modified after the Warren Court. The Revolution aftermath swayed the Supreme Court toward a strict Constructionist interpretation of laws and cases. The Warren Courts of ideals of judicial activism and the states ideals of judicial review were beginning to crumble under the new revisions of the Burger and Rehnquist courts. The Supreme Court today still follows this revised idea of constitutionalism, a perfect example being the current choice of the Supreme Court to choose Bush for president, not by a constitutional decision but based on the will and whim of the judges of the Supreme Court. Is this the way Due Process will continue, or will the future hold more change? The Future of Due Process is unpredictable just as everything is, however many of the things that have reoccurred in history surely provide a key to how the future will be. Several cases that modify old ideas for modern times act as a key for what will happen in the future of Due Process. The ideals of Crime Control, the need to enforce the law, and Due Process, the need to protect the innocent, are a constant clash throughout history. The idea of crime control is rapidly rising and surely will in the future with higher-tech weapons and methods are developed, however the ideal of Due Process will not crumble, because they are necessary for the court system and society in general. The fight between political climate and supreme court is also and important factor in the future of due process. Politics rule the United States today, but do they rule the Supreme Court? In a way yes, the presidents choose who will be added to the Supreme Court, and different presidential parties would make different decisions, making the court different based on who is in office. This fact made big headlines with the recent presidential election being made by the Supreme Court and who Bush would choose to elect to the court. Was the courts election decision made based on who Bush vs. Gore would choose to put into the Supreme Court? As mentioned before the advancement of technology is playing a huge part in world relations and will surely affect the future of due process. What amendments affect genetically created organisms? How can the court help police and the FBI control identity theft within the restraints of Due Process? Also with the increasing religious conflicts throughout the world will changes need to be made in the Constitution to affect the interactions on a global level? I see Due Process changing in the future especially with the First amendment. This is due to the effect of the Internet on everything today. How can such ideas as clear and present danger from the Schenck vs. U. S. (11) preside over the Internet, a battle ground that exists only as data and information? This is further complicated by Gitlow vs. New York (15) that gives police the right to punish that which corrupts public morals, incites crime, or disturbs the peace. How can Internet and technological information transfer possibly be controlled due to its complexity and distribution? Due Process will be upheld because it is specifically needed in the area of violence due to specific issues such as racism, drugs, and illiteracy. This was discussed in the FBI expert predicts violent future we received. If his ideas on violence are correct through 005 Due Processes ideas on protecting the innocent vs. Crime Controls idea of enforcing law will be very important to spare those indirectly involved in crimes such as bombings, hijacking, terrorism, and organized crime. This is prevalent in the Race Riots currently occurring in Cinncinnati, where white police officers are killing an alarming rate of blacks during riots and outbreaks. Are they truly enforcing law and at the same time protecting the innocent or has their bigotry corrupted even the people on a level of justice we are supposed to live by? Due Process has had a long history from its conception from the Magna Charta in the 1th century to its present day effects. I think in the future that those who deal with Due Process will continue to sway more and more towards the conservative side of politics. A good example of this is the recent case of Atwater vs. U.S where mother was arrested on the highway for having her three kids in the car without seatbelts. Is this treatment needed ? It is debatable, but I see officers gaining more and more power to do such things to enforce the public safety of the innocent and get away with it. In the this case I feel it would have been more appropriate to give the woman a ticket and make her buckle in her children as opposed to exposing them to an arrest of their parents at such a young age. This is the way the American Criminal Justice system seems to be shifting, however, we are constantly improving the wrong and continuing to uphold the right, so the ideals of Due Process continue their long tradition of providing for American citizens, and surely will for many years to come.

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War in Iraq

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The United States has been torn apart with the thought of war. There is the fear spread by the media about dirty bombs and mustard gas. There is the recommendation to have an air tight room in ones house and to duck tape sheets of plastic on ones windows. However, many do not understand how this safety advice is related to the Bush Administrations international policy. How did the September 11th terrorist attack from Afghanistan become a War on Iraq? Is President Bushs desire to fight a war on Iraq related to his fathers problems with Sadaam Hussein ten years ago? These and many other questions arise in the mind of the average American citizen. As with many other topics, Americans have various viewpoints concerning the War on Iraq; Some are pro-war and some are anti-war.

One very touchy subject, especially to those heavily involved in the stock market, is the nations economy. Since the September 11th, the continuing war threats have greatly slowed the economy. The pro-war argument states that war would boost the nations economy and bring us out of a recession. Historically, this statement has proven to be true. For instance, the only thing that brought this country out of the Great Depression of 10 was World War II, although many attribute it to Franklin Roosevelts New Deal. The pro-war activists believe that war will aid our economy since war brings massive spending which will create new jobs. Another point on the pro-war side is that war will bring stability to the Middle East. The people of Iraq are, in a sense, trapped under the dictatorship of Sadaam Hussein and his camp. If these people dared speak for what they believe in, they will be killed. Thus, many Americans believe that as a free country, we should be intervening for the sake of human rights. Along with a fear for the people of Iraq, there is a fear for our countrys safety. For a long time, Americans had a pride, a sense of being invincible. However, on the day of September 11th, 001, that pride came crashing down. The realization came that we were no longer invulnerable to a terrorist attack of massive destruction. Thus, because of Iraqs assemblance of nuclear weapons and Sadaams possible acquaintance with Osama bin Laden regarding the attacks of /11, the pro-war side believes that they must be stopped and war is the only way to do it.

As for the opposing, anti-war side, the economy is already fragile enough. To even think of war at a time when our own country is not stable is atrocious. Our economy is struggling and if we enter a war into the picture, it will only become increasingly bleak. When thoughts of war enter the minds of Americans, they think of times of rationing food and budgeting money. Thus, this will decrease the needed spending our economy needs. These anti-war activists direct their anger towards President Bush for putting the needs of other countries before the needs of his own. Also, even if the country was to engage in a war with Iraq, How will it help their people? If the war was to go poorly, it could make matters worse since the war will enrage Sadaam Hussein and his camp. It is acknowledged that there is a chance it will make the situation better, however, is the risk that it could get worse worth it? Not only could war make the situation worse in Iraq, it could worsen matters in America as well. When the war angers Hussein, he could resort to another terrorist attack on the United States and this is the last thing that America needs. The anti-war point of view knows there must be a way around this war.

President Bushs intentions are good, however, Has he given enough consideration of the circumstances if the war does not go as planned? Potentially, war could bring temporary peace and both stability to the people of Iraq and safety to the people of America. It could also bring Americas economy out of the funk it has been stuck in since 001. However, the picture if war does not go well is not worth the slight improvements it could make. America has enough internal problems without muddling in international affairs; We cannot continue to play the world police. Yes, it can be considered our problem since the nuclear war threats have been thrown in our direction, but we cannot afford to aggravate the Iraqis. If both America and Iraq are unintelligent enough to undertake a nuclear war, it will be the end of both countries and quite possibly, the end of the world. It must be comprehended that this is a different type of war than this world has ever experienced due to an increase in weapons technology. These weapons are perfectly capable of destroying the population of the world. Thus, America should stick with the old saying War is not healthy for children and other living things.

Whether one is pro-war or anti-war, all Americans have the same concerns. We are all worried about the economy, the stability of the Middle East, and our countrys safety against terrorism. Nobody wishes for a fallen economy or another terrorist attack. However, we all have different view on what will get us to a point we wish to be at a successful economy, stability in the Middle East, and protection against furthur terrorism.

apsa

On September 11, life in America changed drastically. Terrorists killed thousands of people on American soil. Since that day our country has been planning a counter attack against the people who did it, al Quaida. The President is shifting his focus onto Suddam who took no responsibility for the attack on the U.S. What is going on in Iraq is of no concern to the American people, it's an U.N. issue.

First, The U.N. inspectors have been to Iraq and have made progress. The Iraqis have handed over documents on specific, high-profile unresolved issues including anthrax, the chemical agent VX and missiles. This is a beginning of taking these remaining disarmament issues more seriously. Russian President Vladimir Putin said he saw no reason for military action, We are sure that we need to continue all efforts for a peaceful resolution of this crisis. At the moment, we dont see any foundation, any cause for the use of force.

Next, the President's decision to go to war is not backed by the Security Council. Bush is more on a personal vendetta then doing what is best for our country as a whole. He is being hasty by wanting to send troops to Iraq without any backing from the U.N. America is not the world police, we have no business going after Saddam. Yes he has weapons that he isn't supposed to, but it is not America's job to make sure he gets rid of them, it's the United Nations.

Finally, no one knows the reach of Saddam's power. For all we know he could have his people already on American soil ready to take action should we decide to go to war with Iraq. That would mean our American civilians would be put in danger and for what. For example, if one of Saddam's followers was to set off a nuclear bomb in Baton Rouge it would destroy a 00 mile radius. We have already had enough blood shed on American soil, and our children should be our first concern.

What is going on in Iraq is a great tragedy, and what Saddam is capable of is a nightmare, however it is not our job to start a war. We have to look at the bigger picture and weigh the pros and cons. War is only going to lead to many unwanted deaths. This is not something Bush should jump into alone. We need the support of all the other countries affected, which we don't have. If we go to war there will be no winners, only losers, because life as everyone around the globe knows it will change.

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What kind of bs is this

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During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

During WWI there was a great impact on the role of women in Canadian Society. Women did many types of different jobs. Some worked on farms, as nurses, ambulance drivers, aircraft workers, at the front, in munition factories and for the red cross. While working these jobs the women encountered many problems. There was no heating in the buildings where they worked. The buildings were homes to mice and rats, and they only got paid $8 or $ a week.

Another problem the women encountered were the men. Some men would take advantage of the women by grabbing them as they walked past. Other men resented the women as they excelled at war work and took on supervisory roles. All in all many women were given a hard time.

One of the biggest changes in the lives of women during the war was that many of them finally had the right to vote. It was hard for women to go back to their earlier conditions before the war because so much had changed.

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INVESTIGATION INTO THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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INVESTIGATION INTO THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

AIM- To identify the factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis and, choosing one factor, to ascertain the effects it has.

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction that occurs in plants, by which plants use light energy to make glucose. It needs energy from the photons of light and it is their anabolic effect on the plant that gives the energy for the reaction to take place. During this process carbon dioxide combines with water to from glucose, and oxygen is released. The glucose made then has many uses in the plant respiration, making ATP, active uptake….

Sunlight and chlorophyll must be present for the reaction to take place, and the light is trapped in the chlorophyll

sunlight

Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen.

Chlorophyll

The amount of oxygen given off is an indication of the rate of photosynthesis. The more oxygen being given off, clearly the faster the rate of the reaction, and the more photosynthesis occurring / the faster the rate of photosynthesis.

POSSIBLE VARIABLES-

from background research and previous experiments I know the following variables/ limiting factors to affect the rate of photosynthesis

·Light Intensity the basic energy source

·Temperature- increases enzyme reactions until the point of denature.

·Water- a basic reagent- a lack of water also causes stomata to close inhibiting diffusion of CO in and out of the leaf.

·Chlorophyll- this is what traps the light energy for the reaction

·Carbon dioxide the more CO in the air, the more that can diffuse into the leaf to be a basic reagent for the photosynthesis reaction.

Of these variables I have chosen to investigate light intensity because there are various reasons why other variables would not be suitable

·Temperature- this variable is not specific to increasing the rate of photosynthesis, but rather to general rates of reaction, as I have seen in previous experiments into reaction rates.

·Water- this would be too difficult to control as lowering the water levels too much would kill the plant and ruin the investigation.

·Chlorophyll- again this variable would be too hard to control, as we could not get a whole range of results. Leaves come in variegated form, where parts either contain chlorophyll or they don't. There is no way with our basic equipment to ascertain precise chlorophyll levels in the plant leaves.

·Carbon Dioxide- again with this variable there is either carbon dioxide present or not (adding soda lime). It would be very difficult to obtain or measure precise carbon dioxide levels in the air, or keep that environment from contamination of normal carbon dioxide levels.

·I Chose light intensity- as it is possible to vary this more (resulting in a range of results) by increasing distances between the plant and the lamp gradually to diminish light intensity. Also light is the key variable for photosynthesis- without it no photosynthesis would occur as there would be no energy source.

My aim therefore is to investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis by varying the distance of a lamp from pondweed and measuring the volume of Oxygen given off.

OurPUT VARIABLE- the volume of oxygen given off.

PREDICTION- I predict that as light intensity increases (distance from bulb decreases) so will the rate of photosynthesis increase. Light is a key factor of photosynthesis and without it plants cannot get enough energy to make glucose. Light intensity itself is directly proportional to the rate of photosynthesis as the more light energy a plant receives and traps in the cholorophyll, the more it can produce and so doubling energy in = doubling energy out.

HOWEVER………

From scientific research I know that the relationship between light intensity and distance is

Light intensity = 1/ d

This shows that light intensity is inversely proportional to the distance squared because the light energy spreads out as it travels further away from its light source (ie as distance increases).

This is because light energy travels along the circumference of an expanding circle. As the circle expands and distance becomes greater, this causes the light intensity to decrease as the same amount of light energy must be equally dispersed over a larger area/ circumference. This is not a linear relationship because doubling the distance causes the spreading out light energy to reduce by more than a half as the circumference of a circle =r and this is not a linear quality. Also the equation backs this up, as it is a quadratic quality.

Therefore by doubling the distance away from the plant I expect to quarter the volume of oxygen released as the light intensity will be quartered and so the rate of photosynthesis will be quartered (see above).

I also predict that the control left in the dark will not produce any oxygen as there is no light available for photosynthesis to occur.

TO MAKE MY EXPERIMENT A FAIR TEST

·Keep constant all other variables

·Keep a fixed volume of water in the surrounding beaker of each experiment (in excess)

·Add an excess (1 spatula) of sodium hydrogen carbonate to the water so that CO levels are in excess and not limiting the rate of photosynthesis.

·Keep the water at a constant temperature for each experiment- 4 degrees C- and if it heats up from the lamp add more cold water. This will not affect my experiment as the water needed only needs to be of a certain level, and it will be in excess.

·Also a transparent screen can be placed between the lamp and beaker to prevent heat radiation.

· Use the same fresh elodea for each experiment to ensure the same leaf structures and basic photosynthetic rates.

·The same lamp should also be used in each experiment as the wavelength and intensity of the bulb should be kept constant.

·Use the same length of elodea for each experiment

·Cut the end of the elodea fresh with a razor blade to make sure that optimum photosynthetic rates are acquired.

· Keep a control in the dark to monitor all conditions. No photosynthesis should occur and no oxygen should be collected.

·Give each experiment the same time to photosynthesise.

·Always keep the funnel containing the elodea right in the middle of the beaker so that it is always an equal and fair distance from the beaker edge. This way it will always be the same extra distance from the light source, and no unfair heating or light will be in place to mar my results.

TO MAKE MY EXPERIMENT SAFE I think this is a fairly safe experiment although

·When working with water and electricity be extremely careful to keep surface and hands dry so as not to cause an electric shock.

·When cutting the elodea be very careful with the razor blade and make sure not to cut yourself.

·Be very careful when dealing with glassware.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED-

·1 Lamp (60 Watt bulb)

·1 Beaker (500 ml)

·1 funnel

·1 measuring cylinder- 10cm. This is to hold the elodea and measure the exact amount of oxygen given off.

·1 cm sprig of elodea.

·Stop clock to time investigations.

·Thermometer- to monitor water temperature.

·Bluetack- to hold measuring cylinder in place in beaker.

·Transparent screen- to prevent heat from lamp radiating the water.

·Razor blade to cut a fresh edge on the elodea.

·Mains electricity socket

·Water in excess

·I spatula of sodium hydrogen carbonate (to add CO to the water.

·Ceramic tile

OVERVIEW OF METHOD AND PRELIMINARY WORK

I conducted a preliminary experiment by placing some elodea in an inverted funnel in a beaker of water. Over the funnel I placed an inverted measuring cylinder. I then placed a lamp cm away and, switching on, left it for 10 minutes to photosynthesise. I repeated this for 4, 6, 8 and 10 cm from the lamp. I counted the volume of oxygen given off.

There were however some basic problems with this method

·Firstly I did not have much time, and so the 10 minutes I gave the plant to photosynthesise each time was not sufficient to create a worthwhile volume reading for the oxygen given off, and so my results were void. For the real method I shall count bubbles, and although this method is not terribly accurate, overall I will get a more accurate pattern off results.

·Also I could not use the screen (as intended in my fair test outline), as this was not available. Instead I just had to be more careful with the temperature of the water ( making sure that it did not overheat, and adding cool water whenever it started to heat up)

·In my preliminary work I placed the weed to near to the bottom of the funnel and observed bubbles escaping round the side of the funnel which marred my results. In my real experiment I shall place the weed directly in the measuring cylinder, and further up to avoid oxygen loss, and therefore resulting in more accurate results.

·I shall try to obtain a range of at least 5 results (as in preliminary work- ,4,6,8 and 10 cm between the beaker and the lamp.) to get an accurate and substantial representation and pattern of results. In my preliminary work I also tried putting the lamp 50cm away, yet no bubbles were observed. Therefore our results must be at much smaller intervals as fore-mentioned.

·I shall try to repeat each experiment twice so that any inaccurate results will be noticed, and so that I get more accurate results (by taking averages from a larger amount of data).

For most experiments a control is needed, to which we can compare our results. In this case, we will leave one weed in the dark, and attempt to exclude all light, so we can observe what would happen in terms of photosynthesis and oxygen produced if the plant received no light at all. Obviously we will not be able to count bubbles as they are released in the dark, but we will be able to observe whether after the 10 minutes any oxygen was given off at all. I would predict that it would not be as plants do not photosynthesise in the dark. Any gas that is given off is likely to be carbon dioxide, as plants also respire all the time. We could then use this information to find out how much of the bubbles from our other results were in fact oxygen, or carbon dioxide from respiration.

We will then vary the amount of light the plant receives, at set intervals (as mentioned above), and compare this data to the control.

PLAN OF RESULTS TABLE

Distance between lamp and Elodea(cm)Number of oxygen bubbles producedTemperature of the water (oC)

result 1result average

no lamp- in dark

4

6

8

10

METHOD

1. Cut cm of elodea on the white tile using a razor blade and taking care not to cut yourself.

. Set up apparatus as shown below

. Place one spatula of sodium hydrogen carbonate into the water so that CO is in abundance and is not the limiting factor.

4. Place in the dark and leave for 10 minutes (record time using the stop watch)

5. After 10 minutes remove plant from the dark and see whether any Oxygen has been given off (i.e. whether any gas bubbles have displaced the water at the top of the measuring cylinder.)

6. Repeat the experiment, only this time place the beaker in the dark room but with a light ,4,6,8, and then 10 cm away.

7. Throughout the experiment always monitor the temperature of the water using the thermometer, and if it starts to heat up, add cool water so that your results are not marred.

8. Record all results and repeat experiments twice so that maximum accuracy can be achieved.

OBTAINING EVIDENCE

I carried out my experiment fairly and safely, following the guidelines I set. I repeated each experiment to get more data and so more accurate results, however time did not allow for me to repeat each experiment twice. Although this was the case, my two sets of results still seem to coincide and so I think that they are sufficiently accurate.

Results table 1- no of oxygen bubbles produced compared to distance.

Distance between lamp and Elodea(cm)Number of oxygen bubbles producedTemperature of the water (oC)

result 1result average

no lamp- in dark

4

6

8

10

ANALYSIS

results table - no of oxygen bubbles produced compared to 1/ distance squared

1/Distance between lamp and Elodea squared(cm-)Number of oxygen bubbles producedTemperature of the water (oC)

result 1result

no lamp- in dark

4

6

8

10

As we can see from graph 1, the number of bubbles of oxygen produced (i.e. volume of oxygen) is inversely proportional to the distance between the beaker and the lamp. This is as I predicted and so I have achieved the results I wished for. The graph clearly shows that as distance between the beaker and the lamp increases, the no of bubbles given off decreases. In fact we see from graph 1 that the no of bubbles quarters by doubling the distance from the lamp

distance of cm 1.00 bubbles

distance of 4 cm.5 bubbles

distance of 8cm .50 bubbles

We see that these figures are very near 1/4 the no of bubbles when double the distance. In the evaluation I shall explain why I think they are not exact.

The reason that the oxygen given off quarters as the distance doubles is because light energy spreads out as it travels further away from its light source (i.e. as distance increases).

Light energy travels along the circumference of an expanding circle. As the circle expands and distance becomes greater, this causes the light intensity to decrease, as the same amount of light energy must be equally dispersed over a larger area/ circumference. This is not a linear relationship because doubling the distance causes the spreading out light energy to reduce by more than a half as the circumference of a circle = pr and this is not a linear quality.

If light intensity is quartered as distance doubles light intensity a 1/ d, this would explain why the amount of oxygen given off is also quartered as distance doubles.

This is because light intensity is directly proportional to rate of photosynthesis (doubling energy in = doubling energy out). This in turn is directly proportional to volume of oxygen released, as doubling the rate will also double the bi-product (oxygen) produced.

By looking at graph we do indeed see that the volume of oxygen (no of bubbles released) is directly proportional to 1/distance from lamp. As you double the 1/d, you double the bubbles given off

0.040 cm- 0. bubbles

0.080 cm- 4 bubbles

This is very accurate - only 0. of a bubble out.

The fact that these two factors double together would make sense because light intensity and the amount of bubbles given off are both quartered by doubling the distance. This would imply that if they are inversely proportional to d, then they are both proportional to 1/d , and this is in fact true (see above).

My prediction was therefore correct, and by analysing my results I think that I have sound enough evidence on which to base my conclusions above.

EVALUATION

The method used was a simple and effective way to investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. Although my results were not 100% accurate (as pointed out in the analysis), they were mainly correct, as shown by the smooth curve and straight line of the graphs, and as they clearly followed set patterns, I think that they are sound enough on which to base firm conclusions. My method was not highly sophisticated, yet by carrying out my experiment with great care, repeating my results and observing the patterns portrayed, I can say that my results are reasonably reliable. I had no anomalous results, although obviously there were a couple of points that deviated slightly from the curve / line of the graph.

There are a number of explanations for these slight deviations

·Although I managed the temperature quite well, it did fluctuate a bit, and this may have raised the rate of photosynthesis, and the oxygen produced. We can actually see that the result for 6cm distance actually had a highish temperature, and also a slightly higher thatn expected result. To combat this in the future I should attempt to regulate the temperature by a more satisfactory method. Perhaps I could heat the water slightly to start with, and as it gets hotter than the initial temperature, I could reduce my other heat input.

· Secondly, the pondweed did not photosynthesise at a constant rate. The bubbles were given off erratically, and therefore my results to not reflect 100% accurately what happened. To prevent this in the future, I could allow the plant to adjust to the set intensity of light for longer before I began to record the number of bubbles produced.

·Also the method of counting bubbles was not entirely satisfactory - even though my results were good and fairly reliable- as all the bubbles were of different sizes and so this was not a very fair portrayal. A great improvement for the future would be to leave the experiments running for a much longer time, Perhaps a whole day, to get a better idea of the volumes of oxygen given off. Also instead of counting bubbles I should stick to my original method from my preliminary work of recording the exact volumes of oxygen with the measuring cylinder. Unfortunately this method was not suitable for the time that I had, as volumes were not high enough to record accurately.

The entire experiment also may not have given an accurate reflection of the rate of photosynthesis. This could have happened for the following reasons.

· Unfortunately I did not have time to repeat each experiment twice, but only carried each one out twice. This may have affected all results, because there was only a small range of data to compare, and if one result was significantly wrong, I only had one other result to compare it to. However I did not seem to have any great errors/anomalies and so I still think that my results are reliable overall. In the future I shall however repeat the experiments one or two more times in order to gain more data and so highly accurate and reliable results.

· Some of the oxygen bubbles produced may also have escaped out of the measuring cylinder, or dissolved into the water. Perhaps they were even used for respiration by micro-organisms living on the pondweed. The oxygen lost in this way, however may have been a highly insignificant volume, and would have been very similar for all tests as they were carried out at the same time.

·Some of the gas given off may have been carbon dioxide from the plants respiration, but again, this was unlikely to mar my results, as they would all have been affected at the same rate. Also most of this gas would have been used up in photosynthesis, so the volumes would have been minimal.

· As previously mentioned, when observing the bubbles I noticed that they were all of different sizes. It was hard to judge which I should consider for observation, as some were of negligible size. I decided therefore to count all the bubbles I could, both large and small, even though this may also have resulted in some error. To combat this in the future I could collect the oxygen produced in a gas syringe, or inverted measuring cylinder, to measure the volume, which would be much more accurate than counting bubbles.

Having said all of this, I believe that the evidence collected, supported by my evidence from research and previous enquiries, was sufficient on which to base firm conclusions. However, for further confirmation, and also more insight into the topic as a whole, I could extend the enquiry by doing the following things

·I could vary one other or all of the other variables mentioned in my plan.

·A sensible extra variable to investigate would be the colour, and therefore the wavelength, of the light, keeping the intensity of the light constant this time. Taking into account that plants are green, and so this light will not be as effective for photosynthesis.... I could also vary the wavelength of light, trying to coincide this factor with the one I already investigated (the greater the intensity of light, the greater the rate of photosynthesis).

·I could repeat my experiments to get a wider range of data, leaving each one for a longer period.

·I could investigate different sorts of plants and see whether there is any difference in photosynthesis rate depending on their habitat/environment.

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